DARVO

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DARVO (an acronym for "deny, attack, and reverse victim & offender") is a reaction that perpetrators of wrongdoing, such as sexual offenders, may display in response to being held accountable for their behavior. [1] Some researchers indicate that it is a common manipulation strategy of psychological abusers. [2] [3] [4]

Contents

Process

DARVO is a tactic used by a perpetrator to avoid accountability for their actions. As the acronym suggests, DARVO commonly involves these steps:

  1. The perpetrator denies the harm or abuse ever took place.
  2. When confronted with evidence, the perpetrator then attacks the person that they had harmed, or are still harming. The attacker may also attack the victim's family and/or friends.
  3. Finally, the perpetrator claims that they were or are actually the victim in the situation, thus reversing the positions of victim and offender. [2] [4] It often involves not just playing the victim but also victim blaming . [3]

These tactics are similar to other techniques used by perpetrators to avoid accountability by manipulating observers's perceptions of events. Researchers have noted similarities to outrage management, where a perpetrator tries to make observers think better of themself and their actions so they can avoid consequences. This strategy often involves denying the victim's version of events and trying to make observers doubt the victim's credibility, which are both key aspects of DARVO. Relevant techniques also include playing the victim and playing the hero, which perpetrators use to downplay the harm seen in their behavior. In playing the victim, a perpetrator highlights their own past suffering to attempt to be seen as a victim as well, and in playing the hero, a perpetrator admits to some amount of wrongdoing but highlights their own past good deeds to mitigate their harmful ones. Both techniques may come into play for the denying or reversing stages of DARVO. [5]

Origins

The acronym and the analysis it is based on come from the work of the psychologist Jennifer Freyd, who wrote about it in 1997. [2] The first stage of DARVO, denial, involves gaslighting . [3] [4] Freyd writes:

... I have observed that actual abusers threaten, bully and make a nightmare for anyone who holds them accountable or asks them to change their abusive behavior. This attack, intended to chill and terrify, typically includes threats of law suits, overt and covert attacks on the whistle-blower's credibility, and so on. The attack will often take the form of focusing on ridiculing the person who attempts to hold the offender accountable. [...] [T]he offender rapidly creates the impression that the abuser is the wronged one, while the victim or concerned observer is the offender. Figure and ground are completely reversed. [...] The offender is on the offense and the person attempting to hold the offender accountable is put on the defense. [2]

Research on interpersonal violence has mostly focused on how perpetrators use individual components or steps of DARVO, rather than studying them in combination. However, studies before and after DARVO was coined found a correlation between perpetrators who minimized or denied their wrongdoing and those who reversed the positions of victim and offender. Research during the 2010s began to focus on the use and effect of DARVO tactics in combination, suggesting that DARVO is a common tactic used by perpetrators. [5]

Usage and effectiveness

Freyd stated that DARVO is frequently used and effective, although the number of people who are inclined to believe a DARVO response decreases once they understand the tactic. [6] However, the examination and determination of who is using DARVO proves to be difficult until the abuser and the victim in a case are clearly established.

Where DARVO is used

Studies on the prevalence of DARVO suggest it is a common tactic used by perpetrators when they are confronted over their behavior, regardless of the type of harm they have caused. One study of undergraduates who had confronted someone over a harmful event found that DARVO was used by 72% of the perpetrators during the confrontation. The offenses ranged from social mistreatment, like betrayed secrets, to interpersonal violence, like sexual assault or child abuse. DARVO is particularly likely in cases of sexual violence, with one study of women who had been sexually assaulted at university reporting that half of the perpetrators involved had used elements of DARVO in later conversations. [7]

DARVO has been studied and documented in specific contexts beyond those of interpersonal violence. DARVO has been labeled in some cases of medical malpractice, where victim blaming is already common since doctors and hospitals generally refuse to admit their mistakes due to legal risk. [8] DARVO has also been cited as common in workplace bullying and toxic workplace culture. In the case of academia, when professors try to report bullying, DARVO tactics often compel them to stop speaking up, adding to their trauma and contributing to a culture of silence. [9] [10]

In this vein, DARVO has been theorized as acting on groups of people and not just individuals. One case under study was the intense backlash to the MeToo movement, where men's rights activists cast MeToo allegations as false and claimed the assailants were the real victims via a reactionary hashtag, #HimToo. [11] Other researchers say DARVO can happen at even wider societal levels, labeling it as DARVO when media organizations promote rape myths in efforts to discredit sexual assault victims. [12] Researchers have also drawn parallels between individual DARVO tactics and the tendency for dominant cultural groups to stigmatize and blame groups who are speaking up about their trauma. [13]

Effectiveness

DARVO tactics are more successful when abusers can take advantage of societal beliefs and stereotypes to convince their audience of their new narrative. In the case of sexual violence, assailants sometimes victim-blame by appealing to societal opinions on gender roles and power dynamics. Stereotypes can help perpetrators: if an assailant is a white wealthy man, he may be perceived as authoritative and sincere, whereas if an accusation against him was made by a journalist, they might be seen as predatory and thus less trustworthy. Stereotypes also can limit the effectiveness or opportunity for DARVO tactics: one example is how the ethnic stereotype of Black men as dangerous predators makes it harder for assailants who are Black men to employ DARVO. [14] Similarly, gender stereotypes about sexual violence help explain why DARVO in assault cases grows more effective where a woman has assaulted a man, rather than vice versa. [15]

DARVO is able to move perceptions of responsibility and blame from attackers to victims, when studied in cases of sexual abuse. One study found that DARVO made observers see perpetrators as less responsible for a described case of abuse and less abusive in general, than in cases where DARVO was not used. Victims were likewise seen as more responsible for the abuse against them, and more abusive. The study also found that DARVO reduces the believability of victims and perpetrators when it is used. Even though both sides are seen as less credible by observers, this still hurts victims more: they often need to meet a high standard of credibility to be taken seriously or to successfully report or litigate cases of sexual violence. [15]

Knowledge of DARVO makes observers less likely to be manipulated by it. In the previous study, the negative effects of DARVO were lessened for observers who had previously learned about how DARVO works. This made observers less likely to blame the victim or decide the victim should be punished, and more likely to agree that the perpetrator should be punished. [15]

Vulnerable settings

DARVO is a particular concern in legal contexts and institutional reporting systems, because perpetrators engaging in DARVO tactics frequently use these systems against their victims. Judicial systems often treat alleged perpetrators and victims neutrally during investigations, so an alleged perpetrator and victim have similar legal processes and may have the same access to supportive or protective measures. [16]

In American universities, where Title IX offices often handle investigations of sexual assault and harassment, limited protective measures are available before a full investigation is completed. Assailants engaging in DARVO use these protective measures against their victims, taking advantage of the neutral policies of the office and the attempts of administrators to support the rights of both the accuser and accused. [16]

DARVO manifests in the legal system when assailants file lawsuits against their victims, and these commonly take the form of defamation or libel cases where assailants accuse their accusers of trying to hurt their reputations. [14] Legal DARVO tactics had been growing more common as of 2022. [16] After this rise, many U.S. states passed anti-SLAPP laws to help victims dismiss certain DARVO-based defamation lawsuits. Anti-SLAPP measures help in cases where a perpetrator's lawsuit would obviously fail and was just brought forward to increase public and financial pressure on the victim. [17]

Motivations and beliefs

Researchers have examined how the beliefs of abusive partners match what is claimed in DARVO tactics, where perpetrators deny abuse happened and blame the victim for being the aggressor. In one study concerning intimate partner violence among college students, researchers asked students to fill out private surveys that measured internalized beliefs about their relationships and allowed students to self-report intimate partner violence they had committed. Researchers found a strong correlation between students of all genders who had previously abused their partners and the belief that relationship difficulties were their partner's fault, and not their own. For male respondents, avoiding the discussion of relationship difficulties was also strongly correlated with the likelihood of past abuse. Other research has found that violent men are more likely than nonviolent men to believe their partners are critical and intentionally malicious. [18] Studies of abusive men have also found that they frequently minimize or fully deny that incidents of abuse happened, and that this behavior is most common when the abusers fear legal issues or other situational consequences. [19]

Because of DARVO's prevalence in cases of sexual harassment and violence, one study examined how someone's belief in rape myths intersected with their likelihood to use DARVO. The study measured participant's use of DARVO in reaction to the worst wrong they had ever been accused of committing, and found that DARVO reactions to any type of wrongdoing were correlated with greater acceptance of rape myths and likelihood of perpetrating sexual harassment. The authors propose a few potential explanations: people who use DARVO may be more accepting of victim blaming, people who minimize violence may minimize their own wrongdoing and feel righteously enabled to use DARVO, or persistent sexual harassers may have learned over time that DARVO allows them to avoid accountability. [20]

DARVO tactics are also associated with victims blaming themselves more for their abuse, with one explanation being that perpetrators' victim blaming gets internalized by the victims over time. [12] In one study of undergraduates who had confronted someone over a past wrongdoing, exposure to DARVO was strongly related to a confronter's self-blame regardless of the number of apology-related phrases they heard during a confrontation. This study also found that exposure to DARVO was related to the confrontation feeling like it was going poorly, and an increased number of negative emotions for the confronter. [3]

There has been some work specifically checking the relationship between DARVO and gender. The previous study of undergraduate confrontations did not establish who was the perpetrator or victim, but at least found correlations between confronting and accused parties and DARVO. It found that women were more likely to be exposed to DARVO tactics in all forms, including denial and minimization, personal attacks, victim blaming, and reversal of the role of perpetrator and victim. Men and women were equally likely to use DARVO in this study, although previous studies found that male perpetrators were more likely to use aspects of DARVO when it concerned their romantic relationships. [3] Another study found that DARVO in cases of sexual assault had a stronger impact when there was a male victim and female perpetrator, rather than a female victim and male perpetrator. [15]

See also

Related Research Articles

Sexual assault is an act of sexual abuse in which one intentionally sexually touches another person without that person's consent, or coerces or physically forces a person to engage in a sexual act against their will. It is a form of sexual violence that includes child sexual abuse, groping, rape, drug facilitated sexual assault, and the torture of the person in a sexual manner.

Some victims of rape or other sexual violence incidents are male. Historically, rape was thought to be, and defined as, a crime committed solely against females. This belief is still held in some parts of the world, but rape of males is now commonly criminalized and has been subject to more discussion than in the past.

Abuse is the act of improper usage or treatment of a person or thing, often to unfairly or improperly gain benefit. Abuse can come in many forms, such as: physical or verbal maltreatment, injury, assault, violation, rape, unjust practices, crimes, or other types of aggression. To these descriptions, one can also add the Kantian notion of the wrongness of using another human being as means to an end rather than as ends in themselves. Some sources describe abuse as "socially constructed", which means there may be more or less recognition of the suffering of a victim at different times and societies.

Sexual violence is any harmful or unwanted sexual act—or attempt to obtain a sexual act through violence or coercion—or an act directed against a person's sexuality without their consent, by any individual regardless of their relationship to the victim. This includes forced engagement in sexual acts, attempted or completed, and may be physical, psychological, or verbal. It occurs in times of peace and armed conflict situations, is widespread, and is considered to be one of the most traumatic, pervasive, and most common human rights violations.

Victim blaming occurs when the victim of a crime or any wrongful act is held entirely or partially at fault for the harm that befell them. There is historical and current prejudice against the victims of domestic violence and sex crimes, such as the greater tendency to blame victims of rape than victims of robbery if victims and perpetrators knew each other prior to the commission of the crime. The Gay Panic Defense has been characterized as a form of victim blaming.

A rape kit or rape test kit is a package of items used by medical, police or other personnel for gathering and preserving physical evidence following an instance or allegation of sexual assault. The evidence collected from the victim can aid the criminal rape investigation and the prosecution of a suspected assailant. DNA evidence can have tremendous utility for sexual assault investigations and prosecution by identifying offenders, revealing serial offenders through DNA matches across cases, and exonerating those who have been wrongly accused.

Rape is a traumatic experience that affects the victim (survivor) in a physical, psychological, and sociological way. Even though the effects and aftermath of rape differ among victims, individuals tend to suffer from similar issues found within these three categories. Long-term reactions may involve the development of coping mechanisms that will either benefit the victim, such as social support, or inhibit their recovery. Seeking support and professional resources may assist the victim in numerous ways.

Sexual abuse or sex abuse is abusive sexual behavior by one person upon another. It is often perpetrated using physical force, or by taking advantage of another. Sexual abuse is a term used for a persistent pattern of sexual assaults. The offender is referred to as a sexual abuser. Live streaming sexual abuse involves trafficking and coerced sexual acts, or rape, in real time on webcam.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rape</span> Type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse without consent

Rape is a type of sexual assault involving sexual intercourse, or other forms of sexual penetration, carried out against a person without their consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority, or against a person who is incapable of giving valid consent, such as one who is unconscious, incapacitated, has an intellectual disability, or is below the legal age of consent. The term rape is sometimes casually inaccurately used interchangeably with the term sexual assault.

Rape trauma syndrome (RTS) is the psychological trauma experienced by a rape survivor that includes disruptions to normal physical, emotional, cognitive, and interpersonal behavior. The theory was first described by nurse Ann Wolbert Burgess and sociologist Lynda Lytle Holmstrom in 1974.

As defined by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs, military sexual trauma (MST) are experiences of sexual assault, or repeated threatening sexual harassment that occurred while a person was in the United States Armed Forces.

Sexual violence refers to a range of completed or attempted sexual acts in which the affected party does not or is unable to consent. Theories on the causes of sexual violence are numerous and have come out of many different disciplines, such as women's studies, public health, and criminal justice. Proposed causes include military conquest, socioeconomics, anger, power, sadism, traits, ethical standards, laws, and evolutionary pressures. Most of the research on the causes of sexual violence has focused on male offenders.

A serial rapist is someone who commits multiple rapes, whether with multiple victims or a single victim repeatedly over a period of time. Some serial rapists target children. The terms sexual predator, repeat rape and multiple offending can also be used to describe the activities of those who commit a number of consecutive rapes, but remain unprosecuted when self-reported in research. Others will commit their assaults in prisons.

Jennifer Joy Freyd is an American psychologist, researcher, author, educator, and speaker. Freyd is an extensively published scholar who is best known for her theories of betrayal trauma, DARVO, institutional betrayal, and institutional courage.

Rape in the United States is defined by the United States Department of Justice as "Penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim." While definitions and terminology of rape vary by jurisdiction in the United States, the FBI revised its definition to eliminate a requirement that the crime involve an element of force.

Campus sexual assault is the sexual assault, including rape, of a student while attending an institution of higher learning, such as a college or university. The victims of such assaults are more likely to be female, but any gender can be victimized. Estimates of sexual assault, which vary based on definitions and methodology, generally find that somewhere between 19 and 27% of college women and 6–8% of college men are sexually assaulted during their time in college.

Institutional betrayal is a concept described by psychologist Jennifer Freyd, referring to "wrongdoings perpetrated by an institution upon individuals dependent on that institution, including failure to prevent or respond supportively to wrongdoings by individuals committed within the context of the institution". It is an extension of betrayal trauma theory. When institutions such as universities cover up violations such as rape, sexual assault and child sexual abuse, this institutional betrayal undermines survivors' recovery. In a landmark study in 2013, Carly P. Smith and Freyd documented psychological harm caused by institutional betrayal. A legal analysis concludes that this study is reliable under the Frye standard and the Daubert standard.

After a sexual assault or rape, victims are often subjected to scrutiny and, in some cases, mistreatment. Victims undergo medical examinations and are interviewed by police. If there is a criminal trial, victims suffer a loss of privacy, and their credibility may be challenged. Victims may also become the target of slut-shaming, abuse, social stigmatization, sexual slurs and cyberbullying. These factors, contributing to a rape culture, are among some of the reasons that may contribute up to 80% of all rapes going unreported in the U.S, according to a 2016 study done by the U.S. Department of Justice.

Betrayal trauma is defined as a trauma perpetrated by someone with whom the victim is close to and reliant upon for support and survival. The concept was originally introduced by Jennifer Freyd in 1994. Betrayal trauma theory (BTT) addresses situations when people or institutions on which a person relies for protection, resources, and survival violate the trust or well-being of that person. BTT emphasizes the importance of betrayal as a core antecedent of dissociation, implicitly aimed at preserving the relationship with the caregiver. BTT suggests that an individual, being dependent on another for support, will have a higher need to dissociate traumatic experiences from conscious awareness in order to preserve the relationship.

The #MeToo movementin Pakistan is modeled after the international #MeToo movement and began in late 2018 in Pakistani society. It has been used as a springboard to stimulate a more inclusive, organic movement, adapted to local settings, and has aimed to reach all sectors, including the lowest rungs of society.

References

  1. ↑ Syal, Rajeev (June 2, 2022). "Why did the Depp-Heard libel outcomes differ in the US and UK?". The Guardian . Archived from the original on June 3, 2022.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Freyd, Jennifer J. (February 1997). "II. Violations of Power, Adaptive Blindness and Betrayal Trauma Theory" (PDF). Feminism & Psychology . 7 (1): 22–32. doi:10.1177/0959353597071004. S2CID   143672491. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 1, 2020. Retrieved January 14, 2020.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Harsey, Sarah (June 1, 2017). "Perpetrator Responses to Victim Confrontation: DARVO and Victim Self-Blame". Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma. 26 (6): 644–663. doi: 10.1080/10926771.2017.1320777 .
  4. 1 2 3 Wakefield, M. (March 30, 2020). "How Narcissists Use DARVO to Escape Accountability". Narcissistic Abuse Rehab. Archived from the original on January 10, 2021. Retrieved November 24, 2020.
  5. 1 2 Harsey, Sarah; Freyd, Jennifer J. (April 17, 2020). "Deny, Attack, and Reverse Victim and Offender (DARVO): What Is the Influence on Perceived Perpetrator and Victim Credibility?". Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma. 29 (8): 898 – via Taylor & Francis.
  6. ↑ "How to spot a pattern of denials in the #MeToo movement". CBC/Radio Canada. October 26, 2018.
  7. ↑ Harsey, Sarah J.; Adams-Clark, Alexis A.; Freyd, Jennifer J. (December 4, 2024). "Associations between defensive victim-blaming responses (DARVO), rape myth acceptance, and sexual harassment". PLoS ONE. 19 (12): 2–3.
  8. ↑ Brown, Laura S. (August 11, 2020). "Institutional Cowardice: A Powerful, Often Invisible Manifestation of Institutional Betrayal". Journal of Trauma & Dissociation: 3.
  9. ↑ Lemon, Kathy; Barnes, Kendra (2021). "Workplace Bullying Among Higher Education Faculty:A Review of the Theoretical and Empirical Literature". Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice. 21 (9): 209.
  10. ↑ Täuber, Susanne; Oliveri, Nancy F.; Kostakopoulou, Dora; Mahmoudi, Morteza (2022). Ruffell, Daniela (ed.). "Breaking the silence around academic harassment". FEBS Letters. 596 (18): 2337–2344.
  11. ↑ Kettrey, Heather Hensman; Quinn, Summer; Waddell, Claire; Evans, Jadarius; Imbody, Cadi (October 10, 2024). ""A Woman, With No Evidence, Can Send Any Man to Jail Whenever She Wants": Men's Rights Activists' Digital Narratives of a Culture of False Rape Allegations" (PDF). Sex Roles. 90: 1618–1619 – via Springer.
  12. 1 2 Gould, Rachel (July 11, 2019). "Working psychodynamically and psychosocially with women who have been raped". Psychodynamic Practice. 25 (3): 211–215.
  13. ↑ Subica, Andrew M.; Link, Bruce G. (November 17, 2021). "Cultural Trauma as a Fundamental Cause of Health Disparities". Social Science & Medicine. 292: 4.
  14. 1 2 Dave, Nomi (2022). "The tone of justice: Voicing the perpetrator-as-victim in sexual assault cases". Journal of Ethnographic Theory. 12 (3): 911.
  15. 1 2 3 4 Harsey, Sarah; Freyd, Jennifer J. (April 17, 2020). "Deny, Attack, and Reverse Victim and Offender (DARVO): What Is the Influence on Perceived Perpetrator and Victim Credibility?". Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma. 29 (8): 910–912 – via Taylor & Francis.
  16. 1 2 3 Cantwell-Chavez, Devon; Siddiqui, Asif; Fattore, Christina (2022). "Discrimination and Sexual Assault: Resources and Options for Responding and Reporting". In Lorentz II, Kevin G.; Mallinson, Daniel J.; Hellwege, Julia Marin; Phoenix, Davin; Strachan, J. Cherie (eds.). Strategies for Navigating Grad School and Beyond. Washington DC: American Political Science Association. pp. 332–336.
  17. ↑ Szalkowski, Laurel (March 12, 2024). "Legal Backlash to the #MeToo Movement: A Rise in Defamation Lawsuits Against Survivors". Campbell Law Observer. Retrieved January 12, 2025.
  18. ↑ Scott, Katreena; Straus, Murray (July 2007). "Denial, Minimization, Partner Blaming, and Intimate Aggression in Dating Partners" (PDF). Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 22 (7): 858–863 – via ResearchGate.
  19. ↑ Henning, Kris; Jones, Angela R.; Holdford, Robert (June 2005). ""I didn't do it, but if I did I had a good reason": Minimization, Denial, and Attributions of Blame Among Male and Female Domestic Violence Offenders". Journal of Family Violence. 20 (3): 132, 138.
  20. ↑ Harsey, Sarah J.; Adams-Clark, Alexis A.; Freyd, Jennifer J. (December 4, 2024). "Associations between defensive victim-blaming responses (DARVO), rape myth acceptance, and sexual harassment". PLoS ONE. 19 (12): 14–15.
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