Sibling abuse

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Sibling abuse includes the physical, psychological, or sexual abuse of one sibling by another. More often than not, the younger sibling is abused by the older sibling. [1] [2] Sibling abuse is the most common form of family violence in the US. Nationally-representative data show that about a third of US children, aged 0-17 years of age, have been victimized by their sibling in the past year. [3] Sibling sexual abuse is estimated to occur for between 1-7% of siblings. [4] Sibling abuse often goes unrecognized, even by those harmed by it. [5] [6] [7] As opposed to sibling rivalry, sibling abuse is characterized by the use of control or power by one sibling over another. [8] [9] A power differential is not always easily identifiable, [10] [11] so an additionally important characteristic of sibling abuse is that the incidents or patterns of behaviors between siblings pose a high risk of serious physical and/or emotional harm and may include sexual coercion or violence. [12] Sibling sexual abuse includes sexual behaviors that are unwanted, pressured, coerced, and may include contact or non-contact behaviors. [13] [14] [15] Physical, psychological, and sexual abuse often co-occur. [16]

Contents

Physical abuse

Sibling physical abuse can include shoving, hitting, slapping, kicking, biting, pinching, scratching, and hair-pulling. Sibling physical abuse is more common than peer bullying and other forms of family abuse, such as spousal or child abuse. [12]

Even when sibling abuse is recognized it remains under-reported, due to the lack of recognition and resources provided to families, such as child protective services and mandatory reporters. [17]

Sibling physical abuse can persist from childhood through adulthood, with prevalence rates varying across studies, though its frequency declines as the victim and/or sibling who harms age. [2] [3]

In Pakistani immigrant families in the UK, siblings have the highest proportion of physical abuse compared to other family members, with 35% being done by siblings, compared to 33% by mothers and 19% by fathers. [18]

The findings for gender differences in sibling physical victimization experiences are mixed, but generally show that boys are more likely to be victimized than are girls. [19] [3] Additionally, age and birth order are also contributing factors to sibling abuse, where older siblings are more likely to abuse younger siblings. [20]

Psychological abuse

Psychological abuse among siblings can be difficult to identify. Psychological abuse can include ridicule to express contempt, as well as degradation towards the other's self-esteem. Abusive psychological harm may involve extreme threats of harm or intimidation. [3] Hence, the consequences of the aggression are not only injury, but also control or domination of one sibling over the other. [2] Whipple and Finton [21] report that "Psychological maltreatment between siblings is one of the most common, yet often under-recognized forms of child abuse." Being victimized by a sibling in childhood and adolescence causes fear. [6]

Sexual abuse

Sexual sibling abuse is defined as sexual behavior "that is not age appropriate, not transitory, and not motivated by developmentally appropriate curiosity." [22] To identify sexual abuse, there needs to be coercion and domination over one sibling, although the power differential between siblings can sometimes be subtle and hard to discern, especially when siblings are close in age. [23] Prevalence rates are also difficult to calculate for several reasons: victims often do not realize that they are suffering abuse, until they reach maturity and have a better understanding of the role they played during the encounters, they are afraid of reporting, and there is no consensus on a definition of sibling sexual abuse. [11] A nationally representative survey of adults in Australia found that 2% had experienced sibling sexual abuse in childhood. [24]

As with other forms of abuse among siblings, there is a lack of reporting in sibling sexual abuse, as parents either do not recognize it as being abuse or try to cover the abuse. [11] [25] An increased risk of sibling sexual abuse may be found in a heightened sexual climate in a family, or in a rigidly, sexually repressed family environments. [22] [23] [11] Sexual abuse in siblings may have long-term effects on the victims. Many victims have been diagnosed with a variety of psychological problems. [26] Victims have been reported to correlate pain and fear with sex, leading to long-term issues with intimacy. [27]

Rudd and Herzberger [27] report that brothers who committed incest were more likely to use force than fathers who commit incest (64% vs. 53%). Similarly, Cyr and colleagues [20] found that about 70% of sibling incest involved sexual penetration, substantially higher than other forms of incest. Rayment and Owen [26] report that "[in comparison of] the offending patterns of sibling offenders with other teenage sex offenders ... Sibling abusers admitted to more sexual offenses, had a higher recidivism rate, and a majority engaged in more intrusive sexual behavior than other adolescent sex offenders. The sibling perpetrator has more access to the victim and exists within a structure of silence and guilt." Research has also shown that compared to adolescents who sexually harm non-siblings, adolescents who sexually harm siblings have experienced more adverse childhood experiences [28] and are more likely to have a history of being sexually abused themselves. [29]

Identification

Common parental reactions include minimization of the harmful impact of sibling aggression, [30] expression of disbelief, or making of excuses for the behaviors. [31] Many professionals, such as those in child protective services, law enforcement, school counselors, pediatricians, and nurses, may not know that sibling aggression and abuse happen, are not trained to ask about it, and do not have knowledge of how to respond. [6] [32] Screening questions about types of aggression, frequency, the intention of harm, the magnitude of the aggression, and unidirectional dominance help assess the existence of abuse. [1] [2]

Weihe [1] has four criteria that is used to determine if questionable behavior is rivalry or abusive. First, one must determine if the questionable behavior is age-appropriate, since children use different conflict-resolution tactics at various developmental stages. Second, one must determine if the behavior is an isolated incident or part of an enduring pattern: abuse is, by definition, a long-term pattern rather than occasional disagreements. Third, one must determine if there is an "aspect of victimization" to the behavior: rivalry tends to be incident-specific, reciprocal, and obvious to others, while abuse is characterized by secrecy and an imbalance of power. Fourth, one must determine the goal of the questionable behavior: the goal of abuse tends to be embarrassment or domination of the victim.

A challenge to identifying sibling sexual abuse is differentiating between sexual abuse and developmentally-appropriate sexual behavior. [1] [33] A victim may not be aware that he/she did not consent because of innocence or lack of understanding of what was happening. [33] The latter generally happens to children who are too young to understand sexual implications and boundaries.

Risk factors

There are several important risk factors associated with sibling abuse. [2] They can be categorized into family system, parenting behavior, individual, and other risk factors. [2]

Family system

This category of risk factors associated with sibling abuse looks at the family system as a whole. It includes negative and conflictual parent-child relationships, [34] parental hostility toward a child, spousal abuse, [34] partner conflict, marital conflict, [34] financial stress, [35] [2] low family cohesion, family disorganization and household chaos, [2] [22] parental alcoholism, [2] [36] parental support of child aggression, [30] low maternal education, family adversity, [37] [38] and family triangulation. [2] [39]

Parenting behavior

This category of risk factors associated with sibling abuse examines the parenting behavior of adult caregivers. It includes parental differential treatment of children, parents labeling their children "bad-good" and "easy-difficult", [2] low parental involvement, [2] ineffective parenting, inconsistent discipline, [34] coercive parenting, [2] parental abuse of children, [2] [34] parental neglect and approval of aggression, [2] [30] corporal punishment, [36] not providing supervision, [34] not intervening in sibling conflict, [2] not acknowledging child-voiced claims of maltreatment. [1]

Individual

This category of risk factors associated with sibling abuse considers individual traits of the harming child and the victim child. For children who harm their siblings, known individual risk factors include lack of empathy for victims, [2] [22] unmet personal needs for physical contact in emotion-deprived environments, [22] [23] [2] experience of victimization, including by siblings, sibling caretaking of younger brothers and sisters. [22] [36] [40]

Children harmed by siblings, children with autism or physical disabilities are at a greater risk of being victimized by their sibling than are typically developing children. [41] [42] Siblings who are LGBTQ are at risk for sibling victimization. [43]

Potential effects

The effects of sibling abuse closely parallel those of other forms of child abuse. [6] Consistent evidence demonstrates that harming a sibling or being victimized by one is associated with negative impacts on mental and physical health across the lifespan. [44] [31] [45] Sibling aggressive and abusive behaviors are associated with depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem in childhood and adulthood. [46] [47] It is possible that there may be significant problems following sibling abuse such as affect regulation and accompanying affect disorders, impulse control, somatization, post-traumatic stress disorder, eating disorders such as anorexia or bulimia nervosa, substance abuse issues, major depression and problems with socialization. [1] Sibling abuse is associate with other behavior problems such as aggression and delinquency. [48]

Research has repeatedly shown that sibling aggression sets the stage for peer aggression. [19] [49] 15% of children and adolescents victimized at home by a sibling are also victimized at school by peers. [7] A school bully may be harmed by a sibling at home. It also sets the stage for dating violence. [50]

In addition to the above impacts of sibling abuse more generally, potential effects of sibling sexual abuse include difficulty separating pleasure from pain and fear from desire in a sexual relationship, re-victimization in adulthood, difficulty in developing and sustaining intimate relationships, trouble negotiating boundaries, intimacy issues, and interdependency in relationships. [31] [27] [25]

Siblicide may be an effect of sibling abuse in which a sibling commits homicide against another sibling; typically seen as a male sibling entering life as an adult against a younger brother. [51]

Caffaro and Conn-Caffaro report, based on their research, that adult sibling abuse survivors have much higher rates of emotional cutoff (34%) with brothers and sisters than what is evident in the general population (<6%). [8]

Media portrayals

An important plot point within the traditional fairy tale of Cinderella is the eponymous main character's cruel treatment at the hands of her stepsisters with their mother's implicit approval.

The 1991 made-for-TV movie My Son, Johnny is a rare fictionalized portrayal of sibling abuse. The film stars Corin Nemec as a teenager victimized by his older brother, played by Rick Schroder. The film was inspired by the real-life case of Philadelphia fifteen-year-old Michael Lombardo, tried and acquitted for the 1985 killing of his nineteen-year-old brother, Francis "Frankie" Lombardo, who had battered and abused him for years.

British soap opera Hollyoaks ran a storyline in 2024 featuring sibling sexual abuse between twins Jack Junior (JJ) and Frankie Osborne. [52] The portrayal highlighted family dynamics, including parental favoritism of JJ as the “golden boy” and the abuse’s negative impacts on Frankie, who began binge drinking and self-harming. [53] The Hollyoaks production team consulted with experts from SARAS to ensure a realistic portrayal of sibling sexual abuse.

Notable examples

The 2013 documentary Sibling Rivalry: Near, Dear and Dangerous highlighted the aggressive and abusive sibling relationships of several notable figures, including actresses Olivia de Havilland and Joan Fontaine.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Wiehe, Vernon R. (1997). Sibling abuse: hidden physical, emotional, and sexual trauma (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications. ISBN   9780761910091. OCLC   811563767.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Caspi, Jonathan (2012). Sibling Aggression: Assessment and Treatment. eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost): Springer Publishing Company. ISBN   9780826124159.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Tucker, Corinna Jenkins; Finkelhor, David; Shattuck, Anne M.; Turner, Heather (2013-04-01). "Prevalence and correlates of sibling victimization types". Child Abuse & Neglect. 37 (4): 213–223. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.01.006. ISSN   0145-2134.
  4. ↑ Yates, Peter; Mullins, Eve; Adams, Amy; Kewley, Stephanie (2025-04-01). "Sibling sexual abuse: What do we know? What do we need to know? Stage 1 analysis of a 2-stage scoping review". Child Abuse & Neglect. Sibling sexual abuse: broken from a (supposedly) unbreakable bond. 162 107076. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2024.107076 . ISSN   0145-2134.
  5. ↑ Caspi, Jonathan; Barrios, Veronica R. (2016), "Destructive Sibling Aggression", The Wiley Handbook on the Psychology of Violence, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 297–323, doi:10.1002/9781118303092.ch16, ISBN   978-1-118-30309-2
  6. 1 2 3 4 Tucker, Corinna Jenkins; Finkelhor, David; Turner, Heather (2023). "Emerging Ideas: Is sibling aggression as scary as peer aggression in childhood and adolescence?". Family Relations. 72 (5): 3023–3028. doi:10.1111/fare.12844. ISSN   1741-3729.
  7. 1 2 Tucker, Corinna Jenkins; Finkelhor, David; Turner, Heather; Shattuck, Anne M. (2014-10-01). "Sibling and peer victimization in childhood and adolescence". Child Abuse & Neglect. 38 (10): 1599–1606. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.05.007. ISSN   0145-2134.
  8. 1 2 Caffaro, John V.; Conn-Caffaro, Allison (2005-07-01). "Treating sibling abuse families". Aggression and Violent Behavior. 10 (5): 604–623. ISSN   1359-1789.
  9. ↑ "Disentangling Sibling Rivalry from Aggression and Abuse". Sibling Aggression and Abuse Research and Advocacy Initiative. 2024-11-08. Retrieved 2025-06-04.
  10. ↑ Tener, Dafna; Silberstein, Michal (2019-03-01). "Therapeutic interventions with child survivors of sibling sexual abuse: The professionals' perspective". Child Abuse & Neglect. 89: 192–202. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.01.010. ISSN   0145-2134.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Yates; Allardyce (2023). "Sibling sexual behaviour: A guide to responding to inappropriate, problematic, and abusive behaviour" (PDF). Centre of Expertise on Child Sexual Abuse.
  12. 1 2 Finkelhor, David; Turner, Heather A.; Shattuck, Anne; Hamby, Sherry L. (2015-08-01). "Prevalence of Childhood Exposure to Violence, Crime, and Abuse: Results From the National Survey of Children's Exposure to Violence". JAMA Pediatrics. 169 (8): 746. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.0676 . ISSN   2168-6203.
  13. ↑ Caffaro, John (2022), "Sibling Abuse of Other Children", Handbook of Interpersonal Violence and Abuse Across the Lifespan, Springer, Cham, pp. 1295–1322, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-89999-2_11, ISBN   978-3-319-89999-2
  14. ↑ McCoy, Kelsey; Sonnen, Emily; Mii, Akemi E.; Huit, T. Zachary; Meidlinger, Katie; Coffey, Hannah M.; May, Gina; Flood, Mary Fran; Hansen, David J. (2022-07-01). "Helping families following sibling sexual abuse: Opportunities to enhance research and policy responses by addressing practical challenges". Aggression and Violent Behavior. 65 101652. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2021.101652. ISSN   1359-1789.
  15. ↑ Strong, Fleur (2022). "Closing the gap between sibling sexual abuse as the most common form of child sexual abuse in our homes and the most ignored form of child sexual abuse in the UK" (PDF). Sibling Sexual Abuse Project.
  16. ↑ Tener, Dafna; Tarshish, Noam; Turgeman, Shosh (2020-11-01). ""Victim, Perpetrator, or Just My Brother?" Sibling Sexual Abuse in Large Families: A Child Advocacy Center Study". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 35 (21–22): 4887–4912. doi:10.1177/0886260517718831. ISSN   0886-2605.
  17. ↑ Perkins, Nathan H.; Shadik, Jennifer A.; Cales, Megan A.; Ortiz, Savannah P. (2023-04-03). "MSW students' experiences with ACEs and capacity to address sibling violence: a pilot study". Social Work Education. 42 (3): 302–317. doi:10.1080/02615479.2021.1967311. ISSN   0261-5479.
  18. ↑ Irfan, Shazia; and Cowburn, Malcolm (2004-04-01). "Disciplining, chastisement and physical child abuse: perceptions and attitudes of the British Pakistani community". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 24 (1): 89–98. doi:10.1080/1360200042000212151. ISSN   1360-2004.
  19. 1 2 Tippett, Neil; Wolke, Dieter (2015). "Aggression between siblings: Associations with the home environment and peer bullying". Aggressive Behavior. 41 (1): 14–24. doi:10.1002/ab.21557. ISSN   1098-2337.
  20. 1 2 Cyr, Mireille; Wright, John; McDuff, Pierre; Perron, Alain (2002-09-01). "Intrafamilial sexual abuse: brother–sister incest does not differ from father–daughter and stepfather–stepdaughter incest". Child Abuse & Neglect. 26 (9): 957–973. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00365-4. ISSN   0145-2134.
  21. ↑ Whipple, E.; Finton, S. (1995). "Psychological maltreatment by siblings: An unrecognized form of abuse". Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal. 12 (2): 135–146. doi:10.1007/BF01876209. S2CID   144194464.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Caffaro, John (2014). "Sibling abuse trauma: assessment and intervention strategies for children, families, and adults (2nd ed.)". Journal of Marital and Family Therapy. 41 (2). doi:10.1111/jmft.12081. ISSN   0194-472X.
  23. 1 2 3 Yates; Allardyce (2021). "Sibling sexual abuse: A knowledge and practice overview" (PDF). Centre of Expertise on Child Sexual Abuse.
  24. ↑ Mathews, Ben; Finkelhor, David; Pacella, Rosana; Scott, James G.; Higgins, Daryl J.; Meinck, Franziska; Erskine, Holly E.; Thomas, Hannah J.; Lawrence, David; Malacova, Eva; Haslam, Divna M.; Collin-Vézina, Delphine (2024-01-01). "Child sexual abuse by different classes and types of perpetrator: Prevalence and trends from an Australian national survey". Child Abuse & Neglect. 147 106562. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106562 . ISSN   0145-2134.
  25. 1 2 Hardy, Marjorie S. (2001-09-01). "Physical Aggression and Sexual Behavior Among Siblings: A Retrospective Study". Journal of Family Violence. 16 (3): 255–268. doi:10.1023/A:1011186215874. ISSN   1573-2851.
  26. 1 2 Rayment; Owen (1999). "Working with individuals and families where sibling incest has occurred: The dynamics, dilemmas and practice implications" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 December 2009.
  27. 1 2 3 Rudd, Jane M; Herzberger, Sharon D (1999-09-01). "Brother-sister incest—father-daughter incest: a comparison of characteristics and consequences". Child Abuse & Neglect. 23 (9): 915–928. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(99)00058-7. ISSN   0145-2134.
  28. ↑ Thomsen, Lisa; Ogilvie, James; Rynne, John (2023-09-02). "Adverse childhood experiences and psychosocial functioning problems for youths who sexually harm siblings". Journal of Sexual Aggression. 29 (3): 374–390. doi:10.1080/13552600.2023.2223234. hdl: 10072/424820 . ISSN   1355-2600.
  29. ↑ Worling, James R. (1995-05-01). "Adolescent sibling-incest offenders: Differences in family and individual functioning when compared to adolescent nonsibling sex offenders". Child Abuse & Neglect. 19 (5): 633–643. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(95)00021-Y. ISSN   0145-2134.
  30. 1 2 3 Tucker, Corinna Jenkins; Kazura, Kerry (2013-07-01). "Parental Responses to School-aged Children's Sibling Conflict". Journal of Child and Family Studies. 22 (5): 737–745. doi:10.1007/s10826-013-9741-2. ISSN   1573-2843.
  31. 1 2 3 Wiehe, V. R (1997). Sibling abuse: Hidden physical, emotional, and sexual trauma.
  32. ↑ Yates, Peter (2020-02-17). ""It's Just the Abuse that Needs to Stop": Professional Framing of Sibling Relationships in a Grounded Theory Study of Social Worker Decision Making following Sibling Sexual Behavior". Journal of Child Sexual Abuse. 29 (2): 222–245. doi: 10.1080/10538712.2019.1692399 . ISSN   1053-8712. PMID   31852413.
  33. 1 2 Caffaro, J (2021). Sexual abuse of siblings. doi:10.4135/9781529742343. ISBN   978-1-5264-9486-3 . Retrieved 2025-04-09.
  34. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Tucker, Corinna Jenkins; Finkelhor, David; Turner, Heather; Shattuck, Anne M. (2014). "Family dynamics and young children's sibling victimization". Journal of Family Psychology. 28 (5): 625–633. doi:10.1037/fam0000016. ISSN   1939-1293.
  35. ↑ Hoffman, Kristi L.; Kiecolt, K. Jill; Edwards, John N. (2005-11-01). "Physical Violence Between Siblings A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis". Journal of Family Issues. 26 (8): 1103–1130. doi:10.1177/0192513X05277809. ISSN   0192-513X.
  36. 1 2 3 Eriksen, Shelley; Jensen, Vickie (2006-11-01). "All in the Family? Family Environment Factors in Sibling Violence". Journal of Family Violence. 21 (8): 497–507. doi:10.1007/s10896-006-9048-9. ISSN   1573-2851.
  37. ↑ Tucker, Corinna Jenkins; Finkelhor, David; Turner, Heather (2018). "Family adversity's role in the onset and termination of childhood sibling victimization". Psychology of Violence. 8 (1): 10–18. doi: 10.1037/vio0000087 . ISSN   2152-081X.
  38. ↑ Tucker, Corinna Jenkins; Finkelhor, David; Turner, Heather (2020). "Family predictors of sibling versus peer victimization". Journal of Family Psychology. 34 (2): 186–195. doi: 10.1037/fam0000592 . ISSN   1939-1293.
  39. ↑ Kiselica, Mark S.; Morrill-Richards, Mandy (2007). "Sibling Maltreatment: The Forgotten Abuse". Journal of Counseling & Development. 85 (2): 148–160. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2007.tb00457.x. ISSN   1556-6676.
  40. ↑ Rapoza, Kimberly A.; Cook, Kelley; Zaveri, Tanvi; Malley-Morrison, Kathleen (2010-06-01). "Ethnic Perspectives on Sibling Abuse in the United States". Journal of Family Issues. 31 (6): 808–829. doi:10.1177/0192513X09359158. ISSN   0192-513X.
  41. ↑ Toseeb, Umar; McChesney, Gillian; Wolke, Dieter (2018-07-01). "The Prevalence and Psychopathological Correlates of Sibling Bullying in Children with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 48 (7): 2308–2318. doi: 10.1007/s10803-018-3484-2 . ISSN   1573-3432. PMC   5996014 . PMID   29423609.
  42. ↑ Tucker, Corinna J.; Finkelhor, David; Turner, Heather (2017). "Victimization by Siblings in Children with Disability or Weight Problems". Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics. 38 (6): 378–384. doi:10.1097/DBP.0000000000000456. ISSN   0196-206X.
  43. ↑ Peng, Chang; Wang, Zheng; Yu, Yizhen; Cheng, Junhan; Qiu, Xiaoyan; Liu, Xiaoqun (2022-09-01). "Co-occurrence of sibling and peer bullying victimization and depression and anxiety among Chinese adolescents: The role of sexual orientation". Child Abuse & Neglect. 131 105684. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105684.
  44. ↑ Tucker, Corinna Jenkins; Van Gundy, Karen; Sharp, Erin Hiley; Rebellon, Cesar (2015). "Brief report: Physical health of adolescent perpetrators of sibling aggression". Journal of Adolescence. 45 (1): 171–173. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.09.007 . ISSN   0140-1971.
  45. ↑ Tucker, Corinna Jenkins; Finkelhor, David; Turner, Heather (2024-01-02). "Patterns of sibling aggression and mental health in childhood and adolescence". Journal of Family Trauma, Child Custody & Child Development. 21 (1): 2–21. doi:10.1080/26904586.2023.2234369. ISSN   2690-4586.
  46. ↑ Mathis, Gloria; Mueller, Charles (2015). "Childhood Sibling Aggression and Emotional Difficulties and Aggressive Behavior in Adulthood". Journal of Family Violence. 30 (3): 315–327. doi:10.1007/s10896-015-9670-5. ISSN   0885-7482.
  47. ↑ Meyers (2011). "Sibling abuse: Understanding developmental consequences through object relations, family systems, and resiliency theories - ProQuest". www.proquest.com. ProQuest   858360461 . Retrieved 2025-04-09.
  48. ↑ van Berkel, Sheila R.; Tucker, Corinna Jenkins; Finkelhor, David (2018). "The Combination of Sibling Victimization and Parental Child Maltreatment on Mental Health Problems and Delinquency". Child Maltreatment. 23 (3): 244–253. doi: 10.1177/1077559517751670 . ISSN   1077-5595. PMC   6039865 . PMID   29310443.
  49. ↑ Tucker, Corinna Jenkins; Finkelhor, David; Turner, Heather (2019). "Patterns of Sibling Victimization as Predictors of Peer Victimization in Childhood and Adolescence". Journal of Family Violence. 34 (8): 745–755. doi:10.1007/s10896-018-0021-1. ISSN   0885-7482.
  50. ↑ Noland, Virginia J.; Liller, Karen D.; McDermott, Robert J.; Coulter, Martha L.; Seraphine, Anne E. (2004). "Is adolescent sibling violence a precursor to college dating violence?". American Journal of Health Behavior. 28 Suppl 1: S13-23. ISSN   1087-3244. PMID   15055568.
  51. ↑ Walsh, Jeffrey A.; Krienert, Jessie L. (2014). "My Brother's Reaper: Examining Officially Reported Siblicide Incidents in the United States, 2000–2007". Violence and Victims. 29 (3): 523–540. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-13-00032. ISSN   0886-6708.
  52. ↑ "Hollyoaks to explore sibling sexual abuse in Frankie and JJ story". Yahoo News. 2024-03-08. Retrieved 2025-04-09.
  53. ↑ "Hollyoaks airs harrowing scenes in Frankie and JJ story". Digital Spy. 2024-04-17. Retrieved 2025-04-09.

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