Heredity

Last updated

Heredity, also called inheritance or biological inheritance, is the passing on of traits from parents to their offspring; either through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction, the offspring cells or organisms acquire the genetic information of their parents. Through heredity, variations between individuals can accumulate and cause species to evolve by natural selection. The study of heredity in biology is genetics.

Contents

Overview

Heredity of phenotypic traits: a father and son with prominent ears and crowns. Jug Ear Heredity.jpg
Heredity of phenotypic traits: a father and son with prominent ears and crowns.
DNA structure. Bases are in the centre, surrounded by phosphate-sugar chains in a double helix. DNA animation.gif
DNA structure. Bases are in the centre, surrounded by phosphate–sugar chains in a double helix.

In humans, eye color is an example of an inherited characteristic: an individual might inherit the "brown-eye trait" from one of the parents. [1] Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes within an organism's genome is called its genotype. [2]

The complete set of observable traits of the structure and behavior of an organism is called its phenotype. These traits arise from the interaction of the organism's genotype with the environment. [3] As a result, many aspects of an organism's phenotype are not inherited. For example, suntanned skin comes from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; [4] thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children. However, some people tan more easily than others, due to differences in their genotype: [5] a striking example is people with the inherited trait of albinism, who do not tan at all and are very sensitive to sunburn. [6]

Heritable traits are known to be passed from one generation to the next via DNA, a molecule that encodes genetic information. [2] DNA is a long polymer that incorporates four types of bases, which are interchangeable. The Nucleic acid sequence (the sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule) specifies the genetic information: this is comparable to a sequence of letters spelling out a passage of text. [7] Before a cell divides through mitosis, the DNA is copied, so that each of the resulting two cells will inherit the DNA sequence. A portion of a DNA molecule that specifies a single functional unit is called a gene; different genes have different sequences of bases. Within cells, the long strands of DNA form condensed structures called chromosomes. Organisms inherit genetic material from their parents in the form of homologous chromosomes, containing a unique combination of DNA sequences that code for genes. The specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is known as a locus. If the DNA sequence at a particular locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles. DNA sequences can change through mutations, producing new alleles. If a mutation occurs within a gene, the new allele may affect the trait that the gene controls, altering the phenotype of the organism. [8]

However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are more complex and are controlled by multiple interacting genes within and among organisms. [9] [10] Developmental biologists suggest that complex interactions in genetic networks and communication among cells can lead to heritable variations that may underlie some of the mechanics in developmental plasticity and canalization. [11]

Recent findings have confirmed important examples of heritable changes that cannot be explained by direct agency of the DNA molecule. These phenomena are classed as epigenetic inheritance systems that are causally or independently evolving over genes. Research into modes and mechanisms of epigenetic inheritance is still in its scientific infancy, but this area of research has attracted much recent activity as it broadens the scope of heritability and evolutionary biology in general. [12] DNA methylation marking chromatin, self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene silencing by RNA interference, and the three dimensional conformation of proteins (such as prions) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level. [13] [14] Heritability may also occur at even larger scales. For example, ecological inheritance through the process of niche construction is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment. This generates a legacy of effect that modifies and feeds back into the selection regime of subsequent generations. Descendants inherit genes plus environmental characteristics generated by the ecological actions of ancestors. [15] Other examples of heritability in evolution that are not under the direct control of genes include the inheritance of cultural traits, group heritability, and symbiogenesis. [16] [17] [18] These examples of heritability that operate above the gene are covered broadly under the title of multilevel or hierarchical selection, which has been a subject of intense debate in the history of evolutionary science. [17] [19]

Relation to theory of evolution

When Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolution in 1859, one of its major problems was the lack of an underlying mechanism for heredity. [20] Darwin believed in a mix of blending inheritance and the inheritance of acquired traits (pangenesis). Blending inheritance would lead to uniformity across populations in only a few generations and then would remove variation from a population on which natural selection could act. [21] This led to Darwin adopting some Lamarckian ideas in later editions of On the Origin of Species and his later biological works. [22] Darwin's primary approach to heredity was to outline how it appeared to work (noticing that traits that were not expressed explicitly in the parent at the time of reproduction could be inherited, that certain traits could be sex-linked, etc.) rather than suggesting mechanisms.[ citation needed ]

Darwin's initial model of heredity was adopted by, and then heavily modified by, his cousin Francis Galton, who laid the framework for the biometric school of heredity. [23] Galton found no evidence to support the aspects of Darwin's pangenesis model, which relied on acquired traits. [24]

The inheritance of acquired traits was shown to have little basis in the 1880s when August Weismann cut the tails off many generations of mice and found that their offspring continued to develop tails. [25]

History

Aristotle's model of inheritance. The heat/cold part is largely symmetrical, though influenced on the father's side by other factors, but the form part is not. Aristotle's model of Inheritance.png
Aristotle's model of inheritance. The heat/cold part is largely symmetrical, though influenced on the father's side by other factors, but the form part is not.

Scientists in Antiquity had a variety of ideas about heredity: Theophrastus proposed that male flowers caused female flowers to ripen; [26] Hippocrates speculated that "seeds" were produced by various body parts and transmitted to offspring at the time of conception; [27] and Aristotle thought that male and female fluids mixed at conception. [28] Aeschylus, in 458 BC, proposed the male as the parent, with the female as a "nurse for the young life sown within her". [29]

Ancient understandings of heredity transitioned to two debated doctrines in the 18th century. The Doctrine of Epigenesis and the Doctrine of Preformation were two distinct views of the understanding of heredity. The Doctrine of Epigenesis, originated by Aristotle, claimed that an embryo continually develops. The modifications of the parent's traits are passed off to an embryo during its lifetime. The foundation of this doctrine was based on the theory of inheritance of acquired traits. In direct opposition, the Doctrine of Preformation claimed that "like generates like" where the germ would evolve to yield offspring similar to the parents. The Preformationist view believed procreation was an act of revealing what had been created long before. However, this was disputed by the creation of the cell theory in the 19th century, where the fundamental unit of life is the cell, and not some preformed parts of an organism. Various hereditary mechanisms, including blending inheritance were also envisaged without being properly tested or quantified, and were later disputed. Nevertheless, people were able to develop domestic breeds of animals as well as crops through artificial selection. The inheritance of acquired traits also formed a part of early Lamarckian ideas on evolution.[ citation needed ]

During the 18th century, Dutch microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) discovered "animalcules" in the sperm of humans and other animals. [30] Some scientists speculated they saw a "little man" (homunculus) inside each sperm. These scientists formed a school of thought known as the "spermists". They contended the only contributions of the female to the next generation were the womb in which the homunculus grew, and prenatal influences of the womb. [31] An opposing school of thought, the ovists, believed that the future human was in the egg, and that sperm merely stimulated the growth of the egg. Ovists thought women carried eggs containing boy and girl children, and that the gender of the offspring was determined well before conception. [32]

An early research initiative emerged in 1878 when Alpheus Hyatt led an investigation to study the laws of heredity through compiling data on family phenotypes (nose size, ear shape, etc.) and expression of pathological conditions and abnormal characteristics, particularly with respect to the age of appearance. One of the projects aims was to tabulate data to better understand why certain traits are consistently expressed while others are highly irregular. [33]

Gregor Mendel: father of genetics

Table showing how the genes exchange according to segregation or independent assortment during meiosis and how this translates into Mendel's laws Independent assortment & segregation.svg
Table showing how the genes exchange according to segregation or independent assortment during meiosis and how this translates into Mendel's laws

The idea of particulate inheritance of genes can be attributed to the Moravian [34] monk Gregor Mendel who published his work on pea plants in 1865. However, his work was not widely known and was rediscovered in 1901. It was initially assumed that Mendelian inheritance only accounted for large (qualitative) differences, such as those seen by Mendel in his pea plants – and the idea of additive effect of (quantitative) genes was not realised until R.A. Fisher's (1918) paper, "The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance" Mendel's overall contribution gave scientists a useful overview that traits were inheritable. His pea plant demonstration became the foundation of the study of Mendelian Traits. These traits can be traced on a single locus. [35]

Modern development of genetics and heredity

In the 1930s, work by Fisher and others resulted in a combination of Mendelian and biometric schools into the modern evolutionary synthesis. The modern synthesis bridged the gap between experimental geneticists and naturalists; and between both and palaeontologists, stating that: [36] [37]

  1. All evolutionary phenomena can be explained in a way consistent with known genetic mechanisms and the observational evidence of naturalists.
  2. Evolution is gradual: small genetic changes, recombination ordered by natural selection. Discontinuities amongst species (or other taxa) are explained as originating gradually through geographical separation and extinction (not saltation).
  3. Selection is overwhelmingly the main mechanism of change; even slight advantages are important when continued. The object of selection is the phenotype in its surrounding environment. The role of genetic drift is equivocal; though strongly supported initially by Dobzhansky, it was downgraded later as results from ecological genetics were obtained.
  4. The primacy of population thinking: the genetic diversity carried in natural populations is a key factor in evolution. The strength of natural selection in the wild was greater than expected; the effect of ecological factors such as niche occupation and the significance of barriers to gene flow are all important.

The idea that speciation occurs after populations are reproductively isolated has been much debated. [38] In plants, polyploidy must be included in any view of speciation. Formulations such as 'evolution consists primarily of changes in the frequencies of alleles between one generation and another' were proposed rather later. The traditional view is that developmental biology ('evo-devo') played little part in the synthesis, but an account of Gavin de Beer's work by Stephen Jay Gould suggests he may be an exception. [39]

Almost all aspects of the synthesis have been challenged at times, with varying degrees of success. There is no doubt, however, that the synthesis was a great landmark in evolutionary biology. [40] It cleared up many confusions, and was directly responsible for stimulating a great deal of research in the post-World War II era.

Trofim Lysenko however caused a backlash of what is now called Lysenkoism in the Soviet Union when he emphasised Lamarckian ideas on the inheritance of acquired traits. This movement affected agricultural research and led to food shortages in the 1960s and seriously affected the USSR. [41]

There is growing evidence that there is transgenerational inheritance of epigenetic changes in humans [42] and other animals. [43]

Common genetic disorders

Types

An example pedigree chart of an autosomal dominant disorder. Autosomal dominant.png
An example pedigree chart of an autosomal dominant disorder.
An example pedigree chart of an autosomal recessive disorder. Autosomal recessive.png
An example pedigree chart of an autosomal recessive disorder.
An example pedigree chart of a sex-linked disorder (the gene is on the X chromosome). Sex linked inheritance.png
An example pedigree chart of a sex-linked disorder (the gene is on the X chromosome).

The description of a mode of biological inheritance consists of three main categories:

1. Number of involved loci
2. Involved chromosomes
3. Correlation genotypephenotype

These three categories are part of every exact description of a mode of inheritance in the above order. In addition, more specifications may be added as follows:

4. Coincidental and environmental interactions
5. Sex-linked interactions
6. Locus–locus interactions

Determination and description of a mode of inheritance is also achieved primarily through statistical analysis of pedigree data. In case the involved loci are known, methods of molecular genetics can also be employed.

Dominant and recessive alleles

An allele is said to be dominant if it is always expressed in the appearance of an organism (phenotype) provided that at least one copy of it is present. For example, in peas the allele for green pods, G, is dominant to that for yellow pods, g. Thus pea plants with the pair of alleles eitherGG (homozygote) orGg (heterozygote) will have green pods. The allele for yellow pods is recessive. The effects of this allele are only seen when it is present in both chromosomes, gg (homozygote). This derives from Zygosity, the degree to which both copies of a chromosome or gene have the same genetic sequence, in other words, the degree of similarity of the alleles in an organism.

See also

Related Research Articles

An allele, or allelomorph, is a variant of the sequence of nucleotides at a particular location, or locus, on a DNA molecule.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Evolution</span> Change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations

Evolution is the change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. Evolution occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection and genetic drift act on genetic variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more or less common within a population over successive generations. The process of evolution has given rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetics</span> Science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms

Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms. It is an important branch in biology because heredity is vital to organisms' evolution. Gregor Mendel, a Moravian Augustinian friar working in the 19th century in Brno, was the first to study genetics scientifically. Mendel studied "trait inheritance", patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring over time. He observed that organisms inherit traits by way of discrete "units of inheritance". This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene.

The genotype of an organism is its complete set of genetic material. Genotype can also be used to refer to the alleles or variants an individual carries in a particular gene or genetic location. The number of alleles an individual can have in a specific gene depends on the number of copies of each chromosome found in that species, also referred to as ploidy. In diploid species like humans, two full sets of chromosomes are present, meaning each individual has two alleles for any given gene. If both alleles are the same, the genotype is referred to as homozygous. If the alleles are different, the genotype is referred to as heterozygous.

Genomic imprinting is an epigenetic phenomenon that causes genes to be expressed or not, depending on whether they are inherited from the mother or the father. Genes can also be partially imprinted. Partial imprinting occurs when alleles from both parents are differently expressed rather than complete expression and complete suppression of one parent's allele. Forms of genomic imprinting have been demonstrated in fungi, plants and animals. In 2014, there were about 150 imprinted genes known in mice and about half that in humans. As of 2019, 260 imprinted genes have been reported in mice and 228 in humans.

Microevolution is the change in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population. This change is due to four different processes: mutation, selection, gene flow and genetic drift. This change happens over a relatively short amount of time compared to the changes termed macroevolution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mendelian inheritance</span> Type of biological inheritance

Mendelian inheritance is a type of biological inheritance following the principles originally proposed by Gregor Mendel in 1865 and 1866, re-discovered in 1900 by Hugo de Vries and Carl Correns, and later popularized by William Bateson. These principles were initially controversial. When Mendel's theories were integrated with the Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory of inheritance by Thomas Hunt Morgan in 1915, they became the core of classical genetics. Ronald Fisher combined these ideas with the theory of natural selection in his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, putting evolution onto a mathematical footing and forming the basis for population genetics within the modern evolutionary synthesis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Epigenetics</span> Study of DNA modifications that do not change its sequence

In biology, epigenetics is the study of heritable traits, or a stable change of cell function, that happen without changes to the DNA sequence. The Greek prefix epi- in epigenetics implies features that are "on top of" or "in addition to" the traditional genetic mechanism of inheritance. Epigenetics usually involves a change that is not erased by cell division, and affects the regulation of gene expression. Such effects on cellular and physiological phenotypic traits may result from environmental factors, or be part of normal development. They can lead to cancer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dominance (genetics)</span> One gene variant masking the effect of another in the other copy of the gene

In genetics, dominance is the phenomenon of one variant (allele) of a gene on a chromosome masking or overriding the effect of a different variant of the same gene on the other copy of the chromosome. The first variant is termed dominant and the second is called recessive. This state of having two different variants of the same gene on each chromosome is originally caused by a mutation in one of the genes, either new or inherited. The terms autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive are used to describe gene variants on non-sex chromosomes (autosomes) and their associated traits, while those on sex chromosomes (allosomes) are termed X-linked dominant, X-linked recessive or Y-linked; these have an inheritance and presentation pattern that depends on the sex of both the parent and the child. Since there is only one copy of the Y chromosome, Y-linked traits cannot be dominant or recessive. Additionally, there are other forms of dominance, such as incomplete dominance, in which a gene variant has a partial effect compared to when it is present on both chromosomes and co-dominance, in which different variants on each chromosome both show their associated traits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lamarckism</span> Scientific hypothesis about inheritance

Lamarckism, also known as Lamarckian inheritance or neo-Lamarckism, is the notion that an organism can pass on to its offspring physical characteristics that the parent organism acquired through use or disuse during its lifetime. It is also called the inheritance of acquired characteristics or more recently soft inheritance. The idea is named after the French zoologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829), who incorporated the classical era theory of soft inheritance into his theory of evolution as a supplement to his concept of orthogenesis, a drive towards complexity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetic variation</span> Difference in DNA among individuals or populations

Genetic variation is the difference in DNA among individuals or the differences between populations among the same species. The multiple sources of genetic variation include mutation and genetic recombination. Mutations are the ultimate sources of genetic variation, but other mechanisms, such as genetic drift, contribute to it, as well.

Forward genetics is a molecular genetics approach of determining the genetic basis responsible for a phenotype. Forward genetics provides an unbiased approach because it relies heavily on identifying the genes or genetic factors that cause a particular phenotype or trait of interest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Non-Mendelian inheritance</span> Type of pattern of inheritance

Non-Mendelian inheritance is any pattern in which traits do not segregate in accordance with Mendel's laws. These laws describe the inheritance of traits linked to single genes on chromosomes in the nucleus. In Mendelian inheritance, each parent contributes one of two possible alleles for a trait. If the genotypes of both parents in a genetic cross are known, Mendel's laws can be used to determine the distribution of phenotypes expected for the population of offspring. There are several situations in which the proportions of phenotypes observed in the progeny do not match the predicted values.

Genetics, a discipline of biology, is the science of heredity and variation in living organisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gene</span> Sequence of DNA or RNA that codes for an RNA or protein product

In biology, the word gene has two meanings. The Mendelian gene is a basic unit of heredity. The molecular gene is a sequence of nucleotides in DNA, that is transcribed to produce a functional RNA. There are two types of molecular genes: protein-coding genes and non-coding genes.

Sex-limited genes are genes that are present in both sexes of sexually reproducing species but are expressed in only one sex and have no penetrance, or are simply 'turned off' in the other. In other words, sex-limited genes cause the two sexes to show different traits or phenotypes, despite having the same genotype. This term is restricted to autosomal traits, and should not be confused with sex-linked characteristics, which have to do with genetic differences on the sex chromosomes. Sex-limited genes are also distinguished from sex-influenced genes, where the same gene will show differential expression in each sex. Sex-influenced genes commonly show a dominant/recessive relationship, where the same gene will have a dominant effect in one sex and a recessive effect in the other. However, the resulting phenotypes caused by sex-limited genes are present in only one sex and can be seen prominently in various species that typically show high sexual dimorphism.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to genetics:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</span> Epigenetic transmission without DNA primary structure alteration

Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance is the transmission of epigenetic markers and modifications from one generation to multiple subsequent generations without altering the primary structure of DNA. Thus, the regulation of genes via epigenetic mechanisms can be heritable; the amount of transcripts and proteins produced can be altered by inherited epigenetic changes. In order for epigenetic marks to be heritable, however, they must occur in the gametes in animals, but since plants lack a definitive germline and can propagate, epigenetic marks in any tissue can be heritable.

Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene expression that occur via mechanisms such as DNA methylation, histone acetylation, and microRNA modification. When these epigenetic changes are heritable, they can influence evolution. Current research indicates that epigenetics has influenced evolution in a number of organisms, including plants and animals.

This glossary of genetics and evolutionary biology is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in the study of genetics and evolutionary biology, as well as sub-disciplines and related fields, with an emphasis on classical genetics, quantitative genetics, population biology, phylogenetics, speciation, and systematics. Overlapping and related terms can be found in Glossary of cellular and molecular biology, Glossary of ecology, and Glossary of biology.

References

  1. Sturm RA; Frudakis TN (2004). "Eye colour: portals into pigmentation genes and ancestry". Trends Genet. 20 (8): 327–332. doi:10.1016/j.tig.2004.06.010. PMID   15262401.
  2. 1 2 Pearson H (2006). "Genetics: what is a gene?". Nature. 441 (7092): 398–401. Bibcode:2006Natur.441..398P. doi: 10.1038/441398a . PMID   16724031. S2CID   4420674.
  3. Visscher PM; Hill WG; Wray NR (2008). "Heritability in the genomics era – concepts and misconceptions". Nat. Rev. Genet. 9 (4): 255–266. doi:10.1038/nrg2322. PMID   18319743. S2CID   690431.
  4. Shoag J; et al. (Jan 2013). "PGC-1 coactivators regulate MITF and the tanning response". Mol Cell. 49 (1): 145–157. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2012.10.027. PMC   3753666 . PMID   23201126.
  5. Pho LN; Leachman SA (Feb 2010). "Genetics of pigmentation and melanoma predisposition". G Ital Dermatol Venereol. 145 (1): 37–45. PMID   20197744. Archived from the original on 2019-03-28. Retrieved 2013-03-26.
  6. Oetting WS; Brilliant MH; King RA (1996). "The clinical spectrum of albinism in humans and by action". Molecular Medicine Today. 2 (8): 330–335. doi:10.1016/1357-4310(96)81798-9. PMID   8796918.
  7. Griffiths, Anthony, J.F.; Wessler, Susan R.; Carroll, Sean B.; Doebley J (2012). Introduction to Genetic Analysis (10th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. p. 3. ISBN   978-1-4292-2943-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. Futuyma, Douglas J. (2005). Evolution . Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, Inc. ISBN   978-0-87893-187-3.
  9. Phillips PC (2008). "Epistasis – the essential role of gene interactions in the structure and evolution of genetic systems". Nat. Rev. Genet. 9 (11): 855–867. doi:10.1038/nrg2452. PMC   2689140 . PMID   18852697.
  10. Wu R; Lin M (2006). "Functional mapping – how to map and study the genetic architecture of dynamic complex traits". Nat. Rev. Genet. 7 (3): 229–237. doi:10.1038/nrg1804. PMID   16485021. S2CID   24301815.
  11. Jablonka, E.; Lamb, M.J. (2002). "The changing concept of epigenetics" (PDF). Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 981 (1): 82–96. Bibcode:2002NYASA.981...82J. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb04913.x. PMID   12547675. S2CID   12561900. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-11.
  12. Jablonka, E.; Raz, G. (2009). "Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance: Prevalence, mechanisms, and implications for the study of heredity and evolution" (PDF). The Quarterly Review of Biology. 84 (2): 131–176. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.617.6333 . doi:10.1086/598822. PMID   19606595. S2CID   7233550. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-07-15. Retrieved 2011-02-18.
  13. Bossdorf, O.; Arcuri, D.; Richards, C.L.; Pigliucci, M. (2010). "Experimental alteration of DNA methylation affects the phenotypic plasticity of ecologically relevant traits in Arabidopsis thaliana" (PDF). Evolutionary Ecology. 24 (3): 541–553. doi:10.1007/s10682-010-9372-7. S2CID   15763479. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-03-01. Retrieved 2019-08-15.
  14. Jablonka, E.; Lamb, M. (2005). Evolution in four dimensions: Genetic, epigenetic, behavioural, and symbolic. MIT Press. ISBN   978-0-262-10107-3. Archived from the original on 2021-12-27. Retrieved 2015-06-27.
  15. Laland, K.N.; Sterelny, K. (2006). "Perspective: Seven reasons (not) to neglect niche construction". Evolution. 60 (8): 1751–1762. doi: 10.1111/j.0014-3820.2006.tb00520.x . PMID   17089961.
  16. Chapman, M.J.; Margulis, L. (1998). "Morphogenesis by symbiogenesis" (PDF). International Microbiology. 1 (4): 319–326. PMID   10943381. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-08-23.
  17. 1 2 Wilson, D. S.; Wilson, E.O. (2007). "Rethinking the theoretical foundation of sociobiology" (PDF). The Quarterly Review of Biology. 82 (4): 327–348. doi:10.1086/522809. PMID   18217526. S2CID   37774648. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-11.
  18. Bijma, P.; Wade, M.J. (2008). "The joint effects of kin, multilevel selection and indirect genetic effects on response to genetic selection". Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 21 (5): 1175–1188. doi: 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2008.01550.x . PMID   18547354. S2CID   7204089.
  19. Vrba, E.S.; Gould, S.J. (1986). "The hierarchical expansion of sorting and selection: Sorting and selection cannot be equated" (PDF). Paleobiology. 12 (2): 217–228. Bibcode:1986Pbio...12..217V. doi:10.1017/S0094837300013671. S2CID   86593897. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-08-04. Retrieved 2011-02-18.
  20. Griffiths, Anthony, J.F.; Wessler, Susan R.; Carroll, Sean B.; Doebley, John (2012). Introduction to Genetic Analysis (10th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. p. 14. ISBN   978-1-4292-2943-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. Charlesworth, Brian & Charlesworth, Deborah (November 2009). "Darwin and Genetics". Genetics. 183 (3): 757–766. doi:10.1534/genetics.109.109991. PMC   2778973 . PMID   19933231. Archived from the original on 2019-04-29. Retrieved 2013-03-26.
  22. Bard, Jonathan BL (2011). "The next evolutionary synthesis: from Lamarck and Darwin to genomic variation and systems biology". Cell Communication and Signaling. 9 (30): 30. doi: 10.1186/1478-811X-9-30 . PMC   3215633 . PMID   22053760.
  23. "Francis Galton (1822-1911)". Science Museum. Archived from the original on January 30, 2016. Retrieved March 26, 2013.
  24. Liu Y. (May 2008). "A new perspective on Darwin's Pangenesis". Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 83 (2): 141–149. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2008.00036.x. PMID   18429766. S2CID   39953275.
  25. Lipton, Bruce H. (2008). The Biology of Belief: Unleashing the Power of Consciousness, Matter and Miracles . Hay House, Inc. pp.  12. ISBN   978-1-4019-2344-0.
  26. Negbi, Moshe (Summer 1995). "Male and female in Theophrastus's botanical works". Journal of the History of Biology. 28 (2): 317–332. doi:10.1007/BF01059192. S2CID   84754865.
  27. Hipócrates (1981). Hippocratic Treatises: On Generation – Nature of the Child – Diseases Ic. Walter de Gruyter. p. 6. ISBN   978-3-11-007903-6.
  28. "Aristotle's Biology – 5.2. From Inquiry to Understanding; from hoti to dioti". Stanford University. Feb 15, 2006. Archived from the original on May 7, 2019. Retrieved March 26, 2013.
  29. Eumenides 658–661
  30. Snow, Kurt. "Antoni van Leeuwenhoek's Amazing Little "Animalcules"". Leben. Archived from the original on April 24, 2013. Retrieved March 26, 2013.
  31. Lawrence, Cera R. (2008). Hartsoeker's Homunculus Sketch from Essai de Dioptrique. Embryo Project Encyclopedia. ISSN   1940-5030. Archived from the original on 2013-04-09. Retrieved March 26, 2013.
  32. Gottlieb, Gilbert (2001). Individual Development and Evolution: The Genesis of Novel Behavior. Psychology Press. p. 4. ISBN   978-1-4106-0442-2.
  33. Scientific American, "Heredity". Munn & Company. 1878-11-30. p. 343. Archived from the original on 2022-05-18. Retrieved 2021-08-06.
  34. Henig, Robin Marantz (2001). The Monk in the Garden : The Lost and Found Genius of Gregor Mendel, the Father of Genetics . Houghton Mifflin. ISBN   978-0-395-97765-1. The article, written by an obscure Moravian monk named Gregor Mendel
  35. 1 2 Carlson, Neil R. (2010). Psychology: the Science of Behavior, p. 206. Toronto: Pearson Canada. ISBN   978-0-205-64524-4. OCLC   1019975419
  36. Mayr & Provine 1998
  37. Mayr E. 1982. The growth of biological thought: diversity, evolution & inheritance. Harvard, Cambs. pp. 567 et seq.
  38. Palumbi, Stephen R. (1994). "Genetic Divergence, Reproductive Isolation, and Marine Speciation". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 25: 547–572. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.25.110194.002555.
  39. Gould S.J. Ontogeny and phylogeny. Harvard 1977. pp. 221–222
  40. Handschuh, Stephan; Mitteroecker, Philipp (June 2012). "Evolution – The Extended Synthesis. A research proposal persuasive enough for the majority of evolutionary biologists?". Human Ethology Bulletin. 27 (1–2): 18–21. ISSN   2224-4476.
  41. Harper, Peter S. (2017-08-03). "Human genetics in troubled times and places". Hereditas. 155: 7. doi: 10.1186/s41065-017-0042-4 . ISSN   1601-5223. PMC   5541658 . PMID   28794693.
  42. Szyf, M (2015). "Nongenetic inheritance and transgenerational epigenetics". Trends in Molecular Medicine. 21 (2): 134–144. doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2014.12.004. PMID   25601643.
  43. Kishimoto, S; et al. (2017). "Environmental stresses induce transgenerationally inheritable survival advantages via germline-to-soma communication in Caenorhabditis elegans". Nature Communications. 8: 14031. Bibcode:2017NatCo...814031K. doi:10.1038/ncomms14031. hdl:2433/217772. PMC   5227915 . PMID   28067237.