Sun tanning

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A visible tan line on a woman whose skin has been darkened by ultraviolet exposure, except where covered Tan lines on human female chest.jpg
A visible tan line on a woman whose skin has been darkened by ultraviolet exposure, except where covered

Sun tanning or tanning is the process whereby skin color is darkened or tanned. It is most often a result of exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from sunlight or from artificial sources, such as a tanning lamp found in indoor tanning beds. People who deliberately tan their skin by exposure to the sun engage in a passive recreational activity of sun bathing. Some people use chemical products which can produce a tanning effect without exposure to ultraviolet radiation, known as sunless tanning.

Contents

Impact on skin health

A sun tanned arm showing browner skin where it has been exposed Skin tanning.JPG
A sun tanned arm showing browner skin where it has been exposed
Photoaging of a woman Photoaging.jpg
Photoaging of a woman

Moderate exposure

Moderate exposure to direct sunlight contributes to the production of melanin and vitamin D by the body.[ citation needed ]

Excessive exposure

Excessive exposure to ultraviolet rays has negative health effects, including sunburn. Some people tan or sunburn more easily than others. This may be the result of different skin types and natural skin color, and these may be a result of genetics. [1] [2] The term "tanning" has a cultural origin, arising from the color tan. Its origin lies in the Western culture of Europe when it became fashionable for young women to seek a less pale complexion (see Cultural history below).

Long-term

Excessive exposure may in the long-term increase the risk of skin cancer, [3] as well as depressed immune system function and accelerated aging of the skin. [4]

Tanning process

Cross-sectional view showing skin tone becoming darker due to the production of more melanin to overcome DNA damage caused by UV radiation Melanin production as a result of tanning.jpg
Cross-sectional view showing skin tone becoming darker due to the production of more melanin to overcome DNA damage caused by UV radiation

Melanin is a natural pigment produced by cells called melanocytes in a process called melanogenesis. Melanocytes produce two types of melanin: pheomelanin (red) and eumelanin (very dark brown). Melanin protects the body by absorbing ultraviolet radiation. Excessive UV radiation causes sunburn along with other direct and indirect DNA damage to the skin, and the body naturally combats and seeks to repair the damage and protect the skin by creating and releasing further melanin into the skin's cells. With the production of the melanin, the skin color darkens. The tanning process can be triggered by natural sunlight or by artificial UV radiation, which can be delivered in frequencies of UVA, UVB, or a combination of both. [5] The intensity is commonly measured by the UV Index. [6]

There are two different mechanisms involved in the production of a tan by UV exposure: Firstly, UVA radiation creates oxidative stress, which in turn oxidizes existing melanin and leads to rapid darkening of the melanin. UVA may also cause melanin to be redistributed (released from melanocytes where it is already stored), but its total quantity is unchanged. Skin darkening from UVA exposure does not lead to significantly increased production of melanin or protection against sunburn. [7] In the second process, triggered primarily by UVB, there is an increase in production of melanin (melanogenesis), [8] which is the body's reaction to direct DNA photodamage (formation of pyrimidine dimers) from UV radiation. [9] Melanogenesis leads to delayed tanning, and typically becomes visible two or three days after exposure. [8] The tan that is created by increased melanogenesis typically lasts for a few weeks or months, much longer than the tan that is caused by oxidation of existing melanin, and is also actually protective against UV skin damage and sunburn, rather than simply cosmetic. Typically, it can provide a modest Sun Protection Factor (SPF) of 3, meaning that tanned skin would tolerate up to 3 times the UV exposure as pale skin. [10] However, in order to cause true melanogenesis-tanning by means of UV exposure, some direct DNA photodamage must first be produced, and this requires UVB exposure (as present in natural sunlight, or sunlamps that produce UVB).[ citation needed ] The ultraviolet frequencies responsible for tanning are often divided into the UVA and UVB ranges.

UVA

Ultraviolet A (UVA) radiation is in the wavelength range 320 to 400 nm. [11] It is present more uniformly throughout the day, and throughout the year, than UVB. Most UVA is not blocked by the atmosphere's ozone layer. UVA causes the release of existing melanin from the melanocytes to combine with oxygen (oxidize) to create the actual tan color in the skin.[ citation needed ] UVA is blocked less than UVB by many sunscreens, but is blocked to some degree by clothing. UVA is known both to cause DNA damage and to be carcinogenic. However, it operates not by inducing direct DNA damage, but by producing reactive oxygen species which damage DNA indirectly. UVA (see above) induces a cosmetic tan but little extra melanin protection against sun damage, sun burn, or cancer.[ citation needed ]

UVB

Ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation is in the wavelength range 280 to 320 nm. Much of this band is blocked by the Earth's ozone layer, but some penetrates. UVB:

Tanning behavior of different skin colors

A person's natural skin color affects their reaction to exposure to sunlight. An individual's natural skin color can vary from a dark brown to a nearly colorless pigmentation, which may appear white. In 1975, Harvard dermatologist Thomas B. Fitzpatrick devised the Fitzpatrick scale which described the common tanning behavior of various skin types, as follows: [14] [15]

TypeAlso calledSunburningTanning behavior von Luschan scale
IVery light or paleOftenOccasionally1–5
IILight or light-skinnedUsuallySometimes6–10
IIILight intermediateRarelyUsually11–15
IVDark intermediateRarelyOften16–21
VDark or "brown" typeNoSometimes darkens22–28
VIVery dark or "black" typeNoNaturally black-brown skin29–36

Health aspects

Sunburn peeling Sun burn.JPG
Sunburn peeling
Disappearing sun tan, revealing the individual's naturally light-colored skin Disappearing sun tan.jpg
Disappearing sun tan, revealing the individual's naturally light-colored skin

The most common risk of exposure to ultraviolet radiation is sunburn, the speed and severity of which vary among individuals. This can be alleviated at least to some extent by the prior application of a suitable-strength sunscreen, which will also hinder the tanning process due to the blocking of UV light. Overexposure to ultraviolet radiation is known to cause skin cancer, [16] make skin age and wrinkle faster, [17] mutate DNA, [18] and impair the immune system. [19] Frequent tanning bed use triples the risk of developing melanoma, the deadliest form of skin cancer, according to a 2010 study. The study suggests that the melanoma risk is linked more closely to total exposure than it is to the age at which an individual first uses a tanning bed. [20] The International Agency for Research on Cancer places the use of tanning beds in the highest cancer risk category, describing them as carcinogenic to humans even if used as recommended.[ citation needed ] Frequent tanning also has behavioural reinforcing effects, [21] following UVA radiation epidermal keratinocytes synthesize POMC inducing the production of β-Endorphins which are opioid agonists. An opioid blockade will also then cause withdrawal signs after habitual UV exposure leading to many tanners meeting the DSM-IV criteria for addiction. [22] Several organizations, such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the American Cancer Society and the US Surgeon General have issued guidelines warning about sun tanning and UV radiation exposure, either from the sun or from indoor tanning. [23] [24] [25] Production of vitamin D is essential for human health. Moderate exposure (avoiding sunburn) to UV radiation provides benefits such as increased vitamin D, as well as other possible benefits that are still being studied. [26] Several tanning activators have used different forms of psoralen, which are known to be photocarcinogenic. [27] [28] [29] Health authorities have banned psoralen since July 1996. [30]

Cultural history

La promenade (1875) by Claude Monet. At that time in the West, the upper social class used parasols, long sleeves and hats to avoid sunlight's tanning effects. Monet Umbrella.JPG
La promenade (1875) by Claude Monet. At that time in the West, the upper social class used parasols, long sleeves and hats to avoid sunlight's tanning effects.

In the United States and Western Europe before the 1920s, tanned skin was associated with the lower classes because they worked outdoors and were exposed to the sunlight. Parasols and long sleeves were typically worn, even at beaches. [31] By the 1920s, however, a cultural transformation took place, and tan skin became the ideal. [31]

By the early 20th century, therapeutic benefits of sunlight were advertised to the public. [32] In 1903, Niels Finsen was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine for his “Finsen Light Therapy”. [33] The therapy was a cure for diseases such as lupus vulgaris and rickets. Vitamin D deficiency was found to be a cause of rickets, and exposure to sunlight would allow vitamin D to be produced in a person. Therefore, sunlight exposure was a remedy to curing several diseases, especially rickets.

In 1910 a scientific expedition went to the island of Tenerife to test the wider health benefits of "heliotherapy", [34] and by 1913 "sunbathing" was referred to as a desirable activity for the leisured class. [35] Shortly thereafter, in the 1920s, fashion-designer Coco Chanel accidentally got sunburnt while visiting the French Riviera. When she arrived home, she arrived with a sun tan and her fans apparently liked the look and started to adopt darker skin tones themselves. Tanned skin became a trend partly because of Coco's status and the longing for her lifestyle by other members of society. In addition, Parisians fell in love with Josephine Baker, a "caramel-skinned" singer in Paris, and idolized her darker skin. These two women were leading figures of the transformation that tan skin underwent, in which it became perceived as fashionable, healthy, and luxurious. [36] [37] [38] Jean Patou capitalized on the new tanning fad, launching the first sun tan oil "Huile de Chaldee" in 1927. [39] Just before the 1930s, sunlight therapy became a popularly subscribed cure for almost every ailment from simple fatigue to tuberculosis. In the 1940s, advertisements started appearing in women's magazines which encouraged sunbathing. At the same time, swimsuits' skin coverage began decreasing, with the bikini radically changing swimsuit style after it made its appearance in 1946. In the 1950s, many people used baby oil as a method to increase tanning.

Coppertone, in 1953, marketed its sunscreen with a drawing of a young girl and her cocker spaniel tugging on her bathing suit bottom, revealing her bare bottom and tan line; this advertisement was modified around the turn of the 21st century and now shows a little girl wearing a one-piece bathing suit or shorts. [40] In the latter part of the 1950s, silver metallic reflectors were common to enhance one's tan. [41] In 1962, sunscreen commenced to be SPF rated, although SPF labeling in the US was not standardized by the FDA until 1978. In the 1970s, Mattel introduced Malibu Barbie, which had tanned skin and further popularized sun tanning among women. [42] [43]

In 1978, both sunscreen with an SPF 15 rating as well as tanning beds first appeared. In 2007, there were an estimated 50,000 outlets for indoor tanning; it was a five-billion-dollar industry in the United States, [44] and had spawned an auxiliary industry for indoor tanning lotions including bronzers, intensifiers, and accelerators. Since then, the indoor tanning industry has become more constrained by health regulations. [45] In China, darker skin is still considered by many to be the mark of the lower classes. As recently as 2012, in some parts of China, ski masks were becoming popular items to wear at the beach in order to protect the wearer's face from the effects of sunlight. [46] A 1969 innovation is tan-through swimwear, which uses fabric perforated with thousands of micro holes that are nearly invisible to the naked eye, but which transmit enough sunlight to approach an all-over tan, especially if the fabric is stretched taut. Tan-through swimwear typically allows more than one-third of UV rays to pass through (equivalent to SPF 3 or less), and an application of sunscreen even to the covered area is recommended. [47] [48] [49]

Sunless tanning

A tanning bed emits UV radiation. 715px-Sunbedoff large.jpg
A tanning bed emits UV radiation.

To avoid exposure to UVB and UVA rays, or in seasons without strong sunshine, some people take alternative steps to appear with darkened skin. They may use sunless tanning (also known as self-tanners); stainers which are based on dihydroxyacetone (DHA); [50] or cosmetics such as bronzers.[ citation needed ] Many sunless tanning products are available in the form of darkening creams, gels, lotions, and sprays that are self-applied on the skin. There is also a professional spray-on tanning option or “tanning booth” that is offered by spas, salons, and tanning businesses. [51] Spray tanning does not involve a color being sprayed on the body, instead it uses a colorless chemical which reacts with proteins in the top layer of the skin, resulting in a brown color.[ citation needed ]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sunlight</span> Light emitted by the Sun

Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun, in particular infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light. On Earth, sunlight is scattered and filtered through Earth's atmosphere as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon. When direct solar radiation is not blocked by clouds, it is experienced as sunshine, a combination of bright light and radiant heat (Atmospheric). When blocked by clouds or reflected off other objects, sunlight is diffused. Sources estimate a global average of between 164 watts to 340 watts per square meter over a 24-hour day; this figure is estimated by NASA to be about a quarter of Earth's average total solar irradiance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ultraviolet</span> Energetic, invisible light energy range

Ultraviolet (UV) light is electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths of 10–400 nanometers, shorter than that of visible light, but longer than X-rays. UV radiation is present in sunlight, and constitutes about 10% of the total electromagnetic radiation output from the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs; Cherenkov radiation; and specialized lights, such as mercury-vapor lamps, tanning lamps, and black lights.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human skin color</span>

Human skin color ranges from the darkest brown to the lightest hues. Differences in skin color among individuals is caused by variation in pigmentation, which is the result of genetics, exposure to the sun, disorders, or some combination thereof. Differences across populations evolved through natural selection or sexual selection, because of social norms and differences in environment, as well as regulations of the biochemical effects of ultraviolet radiation penetrating the skin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Melanin</span> Group of natural pigments found in most organisms

Melanin consist of oligomers or polymers arranged in a disordered manner which among other functions provide the pigments of many organisms. Melanin pigments are produced in a specialized group of cells known as melanocytes. They have been described as "among the last remaining biological frontiers with the unknown".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Melanocyte</span> Melanin-producing cells of the skin

Melanocytes are melanin-producing neural crest-derived cells located in the bottom layer of the skin's epidermis, the middle layer of the eye, the inner ear, vaginal epithelium, meninges, bones, and heart. Melanin is a dark pigment primarily responsible for skin color. Once synthesized, melanin is contained in special organelles called melanosomes which can be transported to nearby keratinocytes to induce pigmentation. Thus darker skin tones have more melanosomes present than lighter skin tones. Functionally, melanin serves as protection against UV radiation. Melanocytes also have a role in the immune system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Skin cancer</span> Medical condition involving uncontrolled growth of skin cells

Skin cancers are cancers that arise from the skin. They are due to the development of abnormal cells that have the ability to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Skin cancer is the most commonly diagnosed form of cancer in humans. There are three main types of skin cancers: basal-cell skin cancer (BCC), squamous-cell skin cancer (SCC) and melanoma. The first two, along with a number of less common skin cancers, are known as nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC). Basal-cell cancer grows slowly and can damage the tissue around it but is unlikely to spread to distant areas or result in death. It often appears as a painless raised area of skin that may be shiny with small blood vessels running over it or may present as a raised area with an ulcer. Squamous-cell skin cancer is more likely to spread. It usually presents as a hard lump with a scaly top but may also form an ulcer. Melanomas are the most aggressive. Signs include a mole that has changed in size, shape, color, has irregular edges, has more than one color, is itchy or bleeds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sunscreen</span> Topical skin product that helps protect against sunburn

Sunscreen, also known as sunblock or sun cream, is a photoprotective topical product for the skin that helps protect against sunburn and most importantly prevent skin cancer. Sunscreens come as lotions, sprays, gels, foams, sticks, powders and other topical products. Sunscreens are common supplements to clothing, particularly sunglasses, sunhats and special sun protective clothing, and other forms of photoprotection.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indoor tanning</span> Tanning using an artificial source of ultraviolet light

Indoor tanning involves using a device that emits ultraviolet radiation to produce a cosmetic tan. Typically found in tanning salons, gyms, spas, hotels, and sporting facilities, and less often in private residences, the most common device is a horizontal tanning bed, also known as a sunbed or solarium. Vertical devices are known as tanning booths or stand-up sunbeds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dihydroxyacetone</span> Chemical compound

Dihydroxyacetone, also known as glycerone, is a simple saccharide with formula C
3H
6O
3.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sunless tanning</span> Indoor tanning lotion

Sunless tanning, also known as UV filled tanning, self tanning, spray tanning, or fake tanning, refers to the effect of a suntan without exposure to the Sun. Sunless tanning involves the use of oral agents (carotenids), or creams, lotions or sprays applied to the skin. Skin-applied products may be skin-reactive agents or temporary bronzers (colorants).

PUVA is an ultraviolet light therapy treatment for skin diseases: vitiligo, eczema, psoriasis, graft-versus-host disease, mycosis fungoides, large plaque parapsoriasis, and cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, using the sensitizing effects of the drug psoralen. The psoralen is applied or taken orally to sensitize the skin, then the skin is exposed to UVA.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pyrimidine dimer</span> Type of damage to DNA

Pyrimidine dimers represent molecular lesions originating from thymine or cytosine bases within DNA, resulting from photochemical reactions. These lesions, commonly linked to direct DNA damage, are induced by ultraviolet light (UV), particularly UVC, result in the formation of covalent bonds between adjacent nitrogenous bases along the nucleotide chain near their carbon–carbon double bonds, the photo-coupled dimers are fluorescent. Such dimerization, which can also occur in double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) involving uracil or cytosine, leads to the creation of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) and 6–4 photoproducts. These pre-mutagenic lesions modify the DNA helix structure, resulting in abnormal non-canonical base pairing and, consequently, adjacent thymines or cytosines in DNA will form a cyclobutane ring when joined together and cause a distortion in the DNA. This distortion prevents DNA replication and transcription mechanisms beyond the dimerization site.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Light skin</span> Human skin color

Light skin is a human skin color that has a low level of eumelanin pigmentation as an adaptation to environments of low UV radiation. Light skin is most commonly found amongst the native populations of Europe, West Asia, Central Asia, and Northeast Asia as measured through skin reflectance. People with light skin pigmentation are often referred to as "white" although these usages can be ambiguous in some countries where they are used to refer specifically to certain ethnic groups or populations.

UV-B lamps are lamps that emit a spectrum of ultraviolet light with wavelengths ranging from 290–320 nanometers. This spectrum is also commonly called the biological spectrum due to the human body's sensitivity to light of such a wavelength. UV-B light does not tan the skin very much, compared to the UV-A lamps that are used in tanning beds.

Tanning activators are chemicals that increase the effect of UV-radiation on the human skin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sunburn</span> Burning of the skin by the suns radiation

Sunburn is a form of radiation burn that affects living tissue, such as skin, that results from an overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, usually from the Sun. Common symptoms in humans and other animals include red or reddish skin that is hot to the touch or painful, general fatigue, and mild dizziness. Other symptoms include blistering, peeling skin, swelling, itching, and nausea. Excessive UV radiation is the leading cause of (primarily) non-malignant skin tumors, which in extreme cases can be life-threatening. Sunburn is an inflammatory response in the tissue triggered by direct DNA damage by UV radiation. When the cells' DNA is overly damaged by UV radiation, type I cell-death is triggered and the tissue is replaced.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photoaging</span> Ultraviolet light-induced biological development over time

Photoaging or photoageing is a term used for the characteristic changes to skin induced by chronic UVA and UVB exposure. Tretinoin is the best studied retinoid in the treatment of photoaging.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health effects of sunlight exposure</span>

Exposing skin to the ultraviolet radiation in sunlight has both positive and negative health effects. On the positive side, exposure allows for the synthesis of vitamin D3. Vitamin D has been suggested as having a wide range of positive health effects, which include strengthening bones and possibly inhibiting the growth of some cancers. A dietary supplement can also supply vitamin D, but there are also benefits to exposure not obtainable through Vitamin D supplementation. Long-term sun exposure is associated with reduced all-cause mortality and reduced mortality risk from cardiovascular disease (CVD), some forms of cancer, and non-CVD/noncancer related disease, with indications in these studies that Vitamin D is not the mediator. Supplementation offers limited bioavailability and no synthesis of subdermal nitric oxide. UV exposure also has positive effects for endorphin levels, and possibly for protection against multiple sclerosis. Abundant visible light to the eyes gives health benefits through its association with the timing of melatonin synthesis, maintenance of normal and robust circadian rhythms, and reduced risk of seasonal affective disorder.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dark skin</span> Human skin color

Dark skin is a type of human skin color that is rich in melanin pigments. People with dark skin are often referred to as "black people", although this usage can be ambiguous in some countries where it is also used to specifically refer to different ethnic groups or populations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sunscreen Innovation Act</span> US legislative piece

The Sunscreen Innovation Act is a 2014 law that amended the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act to establish an expedited process for the review and approval of over-the-counter (OTC) sunscreens. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) had not approved a new active ingredient in sunscreen since 1999, despite some sunscreens having been approved and used overseas for a decade. The new law gave the FDA one year to respond to the existing backlog of sunscreen ingredient approval requests, and then 18 months to reply to any future applications.

References

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  31. 1 2 Singer, Merrill; Hans Baer (28 July 2008). Killer Commodities: Public Health and the Corporate Production of Harm. AltaMira Press. p. 151. ISBN   978-0-7591-0979-7 . Retrieved 11 September 2009. Harris investigated the history of the parasol... everywhere ordinary people were forbidden to protect themselves with such devices "pallid skin became a marker of upper-class status". At the beginning of the 20th Century, in the United States, lighter-skinned people avoided the sun. ... Tanned skin was considered lower class...But by the 1920s, a cultural transformation in favor of sun tanning took place.
  32. ↑ "The Times". 25 August 1900: 1: An advertisement for a 'German Bath In Scotland' offers 'For Health and Pleasure...Pure Air and Sun Baths...'.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
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  34. ↑ "The Times". 12 March 1910: 12.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  35. ↑ "The Times". 4 September 1913: 6.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help):Describing a visit by the Prince of Wales to the pretty town of Sigmaringen the reporter says: ‘The Castle possesses many delightful terraces which could be adapted for sunbathing.’
  36. ↑ Hanson, Peter G. (22 June 2009). "About Face". The Effects of Aging, Health and Stress on Your Face. FaceMaster. Archived from the original on 23 April 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  37. ↑ "Sun and Clouds: The Sun in History". Magic Bullets - Chemistry vs. Cancer. The Chemical Heritage Foundation. 2001. Archived from the original on 20 June 2010. By the 1920s, the therapeutic effect of the sun was widely promoted, and two well-publicized French personalities gave "tanning" a fashion boost. Coco Chanel, of designer fame, returned to Paris after a cruise on the Duke of Westminster's yacht with a tan that became all the rage. And the natural caramel skin color of singer Josephine Baker made women all over the world try to emulate her skin tone.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  38. ↑ Koskoff, Sharon (28 May 2007). Art Deco of the Palm Beaches. Arcadia Publishing. p. 2. ISBN   978-0-7385-4415-1 . Retrieved 11 September 2009. In 1920s France, the caramel-skinned entertainer Josephine Baker became a Parisian idol. Concurrently, fashion designer Coco Chanel was "bronzed" while cruising on a yacht. A winter tan became a symbol of the leisure class and showed you could afford to travel to exotic climates.
  39. ↑ Steele, Valerie, ed. (2010). The Berg Companion to Fashion. Berg. p. 554. ISBN   978-1847885630.
  40. ↑ "Sunscreen Lotion, Spray & Sun Care Products - Coppertone® - Coppertone®". www.coppertone.com. Archived from the original on 26 October 2016. Retrieved 1 May 2018.
  41. ↑ Campo, Riku (31 August 2010). Best in Beauty: An Ultimate Guide to Makeup and Skincare Techniques, Tools, and Products. Simon and Schuster. p. 185. ISBN   978-1-4391-5585-1.
  42. ↑ Heckman, Carolyn J.; Manne, Sharon L. (15 September 2011). Shedding Light on Indoor Tanning. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 20. ISBN   978-94-007-2048-0.
  43. ↑ Jablonski, Nina G. (27 September 2012). Living Color: The Biological and Social Meaning of Skin Color. University of California Press. p. 185. ISBN   978-0-520-25153-3.
  44. ↑ Wright, Dan (16 August 2007). "Working The Tan". The Daily News-Record. Harrisonburg, Virginia. Archived from the original on 20 April 2010. Retrieved 11 September 2009. The tanning industry has grown about 25 percent over the past six years, according to the Indoor Tanning Association. In the United States, about 25,000 free-standing tanning salons employ 160,000 people and generate more than $5 billion in annual revenue, the association said.
  45. ↑ Clark, Patrick (5 October 2016). "Twilight of the Tanning Salons". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 10 October 2016. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
  46. ↑ Levin, Dan (3 August 2012). "Beach Essentials in China: Flip-Flops, a Towel and a Ski Mask". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 5 August 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2012.
  47. ↑ Taylor, Angela (17 October 1969). "Tan-Through Fabric Lets Sun Shine In". The New York Times . p. 55. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 30 November 2014.
  48. ↑ "Scorecard: No nudes is good news". Sports Illustrated . 1 September 1969. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. permits 40% of the sun's ultraviolet rays{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  49. ↑ "Tan-tastic bikini that lets rays shine through". Daily Express . 30 May 2009. Archived from the original on 17 October 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2014. 80 per cent of UV rays... a stretchy yarn described as 'a chicken wire mesh material'
  50. ↑ "Dihydroxyacetone". Archived from the original on 28 July 2010. Retrieved 6 July 2010.
  51. ↑ "Sunless tanning: A safe alternative to sunbathing". Archived from the original on 16 February 2010. Retrieved 6 July 2010.
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