Skin whitening

Last updated
Skin whitening
Fair and Handsome - Skin-Whitening Product in Supermarket - Bandarawela - Hill Country - Sri Lanka (14122094934).jpg
Fair and Handsome, a skin-whitening product in Sri Lanka, 2014
Other namesSkin lightening, brightening, depigmentation, bleaching

Skin whitening, also known as skin lightening and skin bleaching, is the practice of using chemical substances in an attempt to lighten the skin or provide an even skin color by reducing the melanin concentration in the skin. Several chemicals have been shown to be effective in skin whitening, while some have proven to be toxic or have questionable safety profiles. This includes mercury compounds which may cause neurological problems and kidney problems. [1]

Contents

In a number of African countries, between 25 and 80% of women regularly use skin whitening products. [2] In Asia, this number is around 40%. [2] In India, specifically, over half of the skin care products are sold to whiten skin. [3] [2] In Pakistan, where skin lightening products are popular, creams have been found to contain toxic levels of hydroquinone and mercury. [4] [5]

Efforts to lighten the skin date back to at least the 16th century in Asia. [6] While a number of agents — such as kojic acid and alpha hydroxy acid — are allowed in cosmetics in Europe, a number of others such as hydroquinone and tretinoin are not. [6] While some countries do not allow mercury compounds in cosmetics, others still do, and they can be purchased online. [2]

Use

Areas of increased pigmentation such as moles may be depigmented to match the surrounding skin. Effective agents for specific areas include corticosteroids, tretinoin, and hydroquinone. [6] These agents are not allowed in cosmetics in Europe due to concerns about side effects. [6] Attempts to whiten large areas of skin may also be carried out by certain cultures. [6] This may be done for reasons of appearance, politics, or economics. [6]

Skin whiteners can help achieve lighter skin tones, but many of them contain harmful ingredients like the steroid clobetasol propionate, inorganic mercury (mercuric chloride or amalgamated mercury), glutathione (an antioxidant traditionally used in cancer treatment), and the organic compound hydroquinone. [7] Skin lighteners' main health risks are linked to (i) The overuse of topical clobetasol, which can cause systemic steroid effects from daily usage, especially on broad skin regions; and (ii) concealed mercury content, which can lead to mercury poisoning depending on individual susceptibility. Many skin whiteners contain a toxic form of mercury as the active ingredient. [2] Their use, therefore, may harm a person's health and is illegal in many countries. [2] [8]

Types

Side effects

Skin lightening creams have commonly contained mercury, hydroquinone, and corticosteroids. [17] Because these compounds can induce both superficial and internal side effects, they are illegal to use and market in multiple nations. [17] [18] However, various chemical studies indicate that these compounds continue to be used in sold cosmetic products, though they are not explicitly declared as ingredients. [19] [1]

Prolonged usage of mercury-based products can ultimately discolor the skin, as mercury will accumulate within the dermis. [20] Mercury toxicity can cause acute symptoms such as pneumonitis and gastric irritation. [20] However, according to a study by Antoine Mahé and his colleagues, mercurial compounds can also contribute to long-term renal and neurological complications, the latter of which includes insomnia, memory loss, and irritability. [1]

Other studies have explored the impact of hydroquinone exposure on health. [17] Hydroquinone rapidly absorbs into the body via dermal contact; long-term usage has been found to cause nephrotoxicity and benzene-induced leukemia in the bone marrow. [21] A study by Pascal del Giudice and Pinier Yves indicated that hydroquinone usage is strongly correlated with the development of ochronosis, cataracts, patchy depigmentation, and contact dermatitis. [17] Ochronosis can lead to lesions and squamous cell carcinomas. [20] While hydroquinone has not been officially classified as a carcinogen, it can metabolize into carcinogenic derivatives and induce genetic changes in the form of DNA damages. [1] [21]

Corticosteroids have become some of the most commonly incorporated lightening agents. [20] Long-term usage over large areas of skin may promote percutaneous absorption, which can produce complications such as skin atrophy and fragility, glaucoma, cataracts, edemas, osteoporosis, menstrual irregularities, and growth suppression. [20] A 2000 study performed in Dakar, Senegal, indicated that chronic usage of skin lighteners was a risk factor for hypertension and diabetes. [1]

Chemically lightened skin is more highly susceptible to sun damage and dermal infection. [20] [1] Long-term users of skin bleachers can easily develop fungal infections and viral warts. [20] Pregnant users may also experience health complications for both them and their children. [20] [1]

Rate of usage

In 2013, 77% of Nigerian women, 52% of Senegalese women, and 25% of Malian women were using lightening products. [22] [23] In 2020, Der Spiegel reported that in Ghana, "When You Are Light-Skinned, You Earn More", and that "[s]ome pregnant women take tablets in the hopes that it will lead their child to be born with fair skin. Some apply bleaching lotion [...] to their babies, in the hopes that it will improve their child's chances." [24]

Skin whiteners typically range widely in pricing. Olumide attributes this to the desire to portray whitening as financially accessible to all. [25] These products are marketed to both men and women, though studies indicate that, in Africa, women use skin bleachers more than men do. [25] [26] A study by Lester Davids and his colleagues indicated that nations in Africa present high rates of usage for skin bleachers. [27] Though many products have been banned due to toxic chemical compositions, Davids found that regulating policies are often not strictly enforced. [27]

In India, the sales of skin lightening creams in 2012 totaled around 258 tons, and in 2013 sales were about US$300 million. [28] [29] By 2018, the industry for lightening cosmetics in India had achieved a net worth of nearly $180 million and an annual growth rate of 15%. [30] As of 2013, the global market for skin lighteners was projected to reach $19.8 billion by 2018, based on sales growth primarily in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. [31]

In the United Kingdom, many skin whiteners are illegal due to possible adverse effects. Such products are frequently still sold even after shops have been prosecuted. Trading standards departments lack the resources to deal with the problem effectively. [32]

Motivations

According to Yetunde Mercy Olumide, advertisements for skin lighteners often present their products as stepping stones to attain greater social capital. [25] For example, representatives of India's Glow & Lovely cosmetics asserted that their products allowed for socioeconomic mobility, akin to education. [25]

In some parts of Africa, people with lighter skin are thought to be more attractive and likely to find more financial success than those with darker skin tones. [22]

In 2009, historian Evelyn Nakano Glenn attributed sensitivities to skin tone among African Americans to the history of slavery. [33] Lighter-skinned African Americans were perceived to be more intelligent and skilled than dark-skinned African Americans, who were relegated to more physically taxing, manual labor. [33]

Studies have linked paler skin to achieving increased social standing and social mobility. [34] [35] [18] A 2011 study found that in Tanzania, residents choose to bleach their skin to appear more European and impress peers and potential partners. [35] Both advertisements and consumers have suggested that whiter skin can enhance individual sexual attractiveness. [36] In 2011, sociologist Margaret Hunter noted the influence of mass-marketing and celebrity culture emphasizing whiteness as an ideal of beauty. [34] A 2018 study found that lighter skin tones in both men and women in India improved their prospects for marriage. [30]

Skin whitening is practiced by some people in some parts of Asia. In South Korea, light skin is considered by some to be an ideal of beauty. South Koreans commonly have light skin naturally and the K-pop and K-drama industries are saturated with fair-skinned celebrities, some of whom serve as brand ambassadors and beauty ideals. The increasing popularity of South Korean culture and K-beauty has driven the skin-whitening trend elsewhere in Asia, especially in poorer countries like Thailand, where many have begun to use unsafe skin-whitening products. [37] In Nepal, cultural influence from Bollywood, which prominently features lighter skinned lead actors, has been linked to the use of skin whitening creams among some darker-skinned men. [38]

Other motivations for skin whitening include desiring softer skin and wanting to conceal discolorations arising from pimples, rashes, or chronic skin conditions. [35] Individuals with depigmenting conditions such as vitiligo have also been known to lighten their skin to achieve an even skin tone. [39]

Mechanism of action

Skin lightening soaps Skin Bleaching is everywhere.jpg
Skin lightening soaps

Skin whitening agents work by reducing the presence of melanin pigment in the skin. To accomplish this, there are several possible mechanisms of action: [40]

Inhibition of tyrosinase

Upregulation of tyrosinase caused by tyrosinase inhibitors. Several skin whitening agents, including tyrosinase inhibitors, have been found to cause an increase in the expression of tyrosinase, which by itself would increase melanin synthesis. [41]

Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) is the master transcription factor that controls the expression of TYR, TRP1, and TRP2, MART1, PMEL17, and many other important proteins involved in the function of melanocytes. [notes 1] Downregulation of MITF decreases melanogenesis [notes 1] and is a mechanism of action of some skin whitening agents. [42] Various signaling pathways and genetic mutations influence the expression of MITF. [notes 2]

MC1R receptor and cAMP

The melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) is a transmembrane and G-protein coupled receptor expressed in melanocytes. MC1R is an important target for the regulation of melanogenesis. [46] [47] [43] Agonism of MC1R increases the ratio of eumelanin to pheomelanin and increases the generation of melanin overall.

The MC1R and cAMP signaling pathway [46] [47] [48] starts with the activation of MC1R, which causes activation of adenylyl cyclase (AC), which produces cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), which activates protein kinase A (PKA), which activates by protein phosphorylation cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), which upregulates MITF, of which CREB is a transcription factor.

Alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH), beta-melanocyte stimulating hormone (β-MSH), and adrenocorticotropic hormone are endogenous agonists of MC1R. [45] : 1175  Agouti signaling protein (ASIP) appears to be the only endogenous antagonist of MC1R. Synthetic MC1R agonists have been designed, such as the peptides afamelanotide and melanotan II. [46]

Mutations of the MC1R gene correlate are at least partially responsible for red hair, white skin, and an increased risk for skin cancer in some individuals. [46] [49] [47] [50] [51] [52] [45] : 1175 

Transfer of melanosomes

Within the skin, melanocytes are present in the basal layer of the epidermis; from these, melanocytes originate dendrites that reach keratinocytes. [notes 3]

Melanosomes, along with the melanin they contain, are transferred from melanocytes to keratinocytes when keratinocytes are low in the epidermis. [notes 4] Keratinocytes carry the melanosomes with them as they move toward the surface. Keratinocytes contribute to skin pigmentation by holding the melanin originating in melanocytes and inducing melanogenesis through chemical signals directed at melanocytes. [notes 2] The transfer of melanosomes to keratinocytes is a necessary condition for the visible pigmentation of the skin. [53] Blocking this transfer is a mechanism of action of some skin whitening agents. [42] [40]

The protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2) is a transmembrane and G-protein coupled receptor expressed in keratinocytes and involved in melanocyte transfer. [notes 5] Antagonists of PAR2 inhibit the transfer of melanosomes and have skin whitening effects, while agonists of PAR2 have the opposite effect. [notes 5]

Destroying melanocytes

Some compounds are known to destroy melanocytes; this mechanism of action is often used to remove the remaining pigmentation in cases of vitiligo. [58]

History

An advertisement from the 1930s for Sweet Georgia Brown skin bleaching cream Sweet Georgia Brown skin bleaching cream advertisement 1930s.jpg
An advertisement from the 1930s for Sweet Georgia Brown skin bleaching cream

Early skin whitening practices were not well-documented. [59] Skin whitening is a practice that has made its way across the entire globe with a multitude of cultures adopting the practice under various ideologies. Commonly, the practice has been marketed towards women under the pretense that porcelain skin was the ideal representation of beauty and status. [60] The first recorded practices of skin whitening can be traced back to over 200 B.C. across a multitude of civilizations that utilized natural sources of ingredients to facilitate the production of skin whitening substances. [61]

One of these methods include the use of honey and olive oil as a method of whitening the skin in different civilizations such as in Egypt as well as in Greek culture. [61] According to anthropologist Nina Jablonski, these practices did not become publicized until famous figures, such as Cleopatra and Queen Elizabeth, began to use them regularly. [59] Cosmetic formulas initially spread from continental Europe and China to Britain and Japan, respectively. [59]

Various historians argue that, across cultures, skin lightening became a desirable norm due to implications of wealth. [59] [62] [25] Although the majority methods of which the skin whitening process is undertaken have been deemed unsafe due to various side effects, they are still used for a range of purposes, including the desire for improvement of one's socioeconomic status as well as the socialization in some cultures of one's perceived inferiority based on having darker or lighter skin than others. [63] [60]

This process through which perceived inferiority can be exercised physically can be looked back on through a foundational perspective of the "Nigrescence Theory". This theory explains the distinction of one's own socialized identity through various stages, and the pigmentation of the skin that someone is born with that is associated with the socialization process within a culture. [64] More specifically, out of the four stages associated with this theory, the first one, named the "pre-encounter" stage, highlights the underlying concept one not associating themselves with their own culture or values due partly to the misinformation one has been taught to believe and therefore seeks validation and worthiness from those who have misinformed that person. [64]

East Asia

Shiseido skin lightening products, 2019 Shiseido whitening products.jpg
Shiseido skin lightening products, 2019

The history of skin whitening in East Asia dates to ancient times. To be light in an environment in which the sun was harsh implied wealth and nobility because those individuals were able to remain indoors while servants had to labor outside. [65]

Ancient Asian cultures also associated light skin with feminine beauty. "Jade" white skin in Korea is known to have been the ideal as far back as the Gojoseon era. Japan's Edo period saw the start of a trend of women whitening their faces with rice powder as a "moral duty". Chinese women valued a "milk white" complexion and swallowed powdered pearls towards that end. [66]

Skin-lightening practices had achieved great importance in East Asia as early as the 16th century. [59] Similar to early European cosmetics, white makeup was reported to cause severe health problems and physical malformations. [59] In Japan, samurai mothers who used lead-based white paint on their faces often had children who exhibited symptoms of lead toxicity and stunted bone growth. [59] Japanese nobility, including both men and women, often applied white lead powder to their faces prior to the Meiji restoration. [67]

Following the Meiji restoration, men and women reserved white lead makeup and traditional attire for special occasions. [67] In China, Korea, and Japan, washing one's face with rice water was also practiced, as it was believed to naturally whiten skin. [59] [68] Historians also noted that as East Asian women immigrated to the United States, immigrant women engaged in skin lightening more frequently than women who did not immigrate. [33]

Advertisements were a large influence in the marketable appeal of skin whitening in China and Taiwan. [69] Skincare products that are recognized to protect the skin included chemicals that assist in skin whitening. [69] These products were marketed and promoted as the solution to appearing young forever. [69] Skincare products have been predominantly created to serve as anti-aging to women in China and Taiwan of all ages. [69]

South East Asia

Nina Jablonski and Evelyn Nakano Glenn both assert that skin whitening in many South and Southeast Asian nations such as the Philippines grew in popularity through these nations' histories of European colonization. [59] [70] Multiple studies find that preferences for lighter skin in India were historically linked to both the Indian caste system and centuries of outside rule by light-skinned nations. [71] [72] In the Philippines and many Southeast Asian countries, lighter skin was associated with higher social status. [33] Historians indicate that the social hierarchies in the Philippines encompasses a spectrum of skin tones due to intermarriages between indigenous populations, East Asian settlers from Japan and China, and European and American colonists. [70]

South Asia

In South Asia, the colour of one's skin determined social status as it implied the circumstances of one's positionality. [73] While pale skin suggested being away from the sun, darker skin signified the result of working in external conditions. [74] With colonial influence from Britain's occupation, there was a distinction in superiority and inferiority. [73] With those in power attributing pale complexions, there was an association tied among class and position. [73] The South Asian film industry was a contributing factor from colonialism in the reinforcement of these narratives. [74] Turmeric was a used ingredient in lightening skin tone complexion to be seen as desirable. [74]

Middle East

Skin lightening is a common practice among women in several Middle Eastern countries, most notably Jordan [75] and Saudi Arabia. [76] This practice has been attributed to a perceived association between light skin and beauty, as well as marriage and employment opportunities. [75] [76]

Europe

Skin whitening practices have been documented in ancient Greece and Rome. [77] Bleaching cosmetics often incorporated white lead carbonate and mercury as lightening agents. [77] These products were ultimately known to cause skin erosion. [77]

Skin whitening was frequently documented during the Elizabethan era. [62] Queen Elizabeth's own usage of skin lighteners became a prominent standard of beauty. [78] According to medieval historians, light skin was an indicator of aristocracy and higher socioeconomic class, as laborers were more frequently exposed to outdoor sunlight. [79] [80] Men and women lightened their skin superficially and chemically, using white powder and Venetian ceruse, respectively. [81] [79] Venetian ceruse consisted of a lead and vinegar mixture, known to cause hair loss, skin corrosion, muscle paralysis, tooth deterioration, blindness, and premature aging. [81] [82] [80] Venetian ceruse was also reported as a source of lead poisoning. [81] [78] Lye and ammonia, found in other skin whiteners, compounded the toxic effects of lead. [78] Other practices done in the name of skin whitening included washing one's face in urine and ingesting wafers of arsenic. [77] [80]

United States

An advertisement from 1889 for arsenic wafers in the United States 18891109 Arsenic complexion wafers - Helena Independent.png
An advertisement from 1889 for arsenic wafers in the United States

According to scholar Shirley Anne Tate, skin whiteners in the United States were initially predominantly used by white women. [78] European immigrants introduced recipes for cosmetic skin lighteners into the American colonies, where they eventually evolved to incorporate indigenous and West African herbal traditions. [78] Skin whitening grew in popularity in the 1800s, as white women in the United States began to emulate the skin-whitening practices performed by those in Europe. [78] As such, American women similarly used ceruse, arsenic wafers, and products that contained toxic dosages of lead and mercury. [78] Mormon denominations like the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS church) taught into the 1970s that God would whiten the skin color of Native American adherents, and that skin color was correlated with premortal obedience to God. [83] [84] [85]

In the 2015 book, Skin bleaching in Black Atlantic zones: shade shifters, author Shirley Anne Tate writes that skin lightening was often not well-received in Black culture. Women in Black cultures who used skin whiteners were described as artificial, while Black men who used skin whiteners were described as overly effeminate. [78] Despite this reception, skin whitening remained a popular practice. Historians note that advertisements for skin whiteners in the 20th century often associated pale skin with gentility. [33]

According to historian Kathy Peiss, skin whitening among black American women had been documented starting in the mid-nineteenth century. [86] Historians credited the increased marketing of skin whiteners to the culture of the Jim Crow era, as black Americans faced continued social and legal restrictions. [59] [86] Cosmetic advertisements directed at black consumers often framed resulting lighter complexions as cleaner and better. [86] [70] Simultaneously, cosmetic and beauty magazines often published criticisms of black women who used skin bleachers, arguing that they appeared unnatural and fraudulent. [86] [70]

In the 1930s, tanned skin became popular among white women as a new symbol of wealth. Some historians assert that industrialization had created indoor settings for labor, causing tanned skin to be associated more with sunbathing, travel, and leisure. [80] [78] The growth of the Black is Beautiful movement in the 1960s, combined with greater awareness of potential health hazards, also temporarily slowed the sale and popularity of skin bleachers. [59] However, by the 1980s, paler skin once again became more desirable, as tanning became linked to premature aging and sun damage. [78] [70]

Americas

Skin whitening practices have also been well documented in South America and the Caribbean. Sociologists such as Jack Menke noted that early skin-lightening practices among indigenous women were motivated by the attentions of conquistadores. [87] [88] Recovered journals from women in Suriname indicated that they used vegetable mixtures to lighten their skin, which produced painful side effects. [88]

Various studies have linked the prevalence of skin whitening in Latin American nations to their histories and legacies of colonization and slavery. [89] [68] [87] Witness accounts in colonial Jamaica reported that women practiced "flaying" and "skinning" on themselves, using astringent lotions to appear lighter. [89] Caribbean creole women were also observed to treat their skin with cashew nut oil, which burned the external layers of skin. [89]

Skin whitening practices grew in popularity, partly as a consequence of blanqueamiento in Latin America. [90] The ideologies behind blanqueamiento promoted the idea of social hierarchy, based on Eurocentric features and skin tone. [91]

Africa

Records indicate prominent usage of skin lighteners in South Africa beginning in the 20th century. [27] Historians suggest that this may be associated with the passage of the Colored Labor Preference Act, in 1955. [92] Skin lighteners in South Africa were first marketed to white consumers, then eventually to consumers of color. [93] Initially, skin whitening was typically practiced by rural and poor South African women; however, studies indicate that the practice has become increasingly prevalent among black women with higher incomes and levels of education. [70]

Historian Lynn Thomas attributes the initial popularity of these skin whiteners to the socially desired implications of limited outdoor labor, sexual relationships with lighter-skinned partners, and lighter-skinned heritage. [93] Starting in the 1970s, the South African government established regulations for skin whitening products, banning products that contained mercury or high levels of hydroquinone. [94] By the 1980s, critiques of skin whitening had become incorporated into the anti-apartheid movement, given skin whitening's adverse consequences on health and its social implications of colorism. [94]

In Ghana, preferences for lighter skin had been documented beginning in the 16th century. [89] Shirley Anne Tate attributes this to the aesthetics and statuses promoted during the period of colonial rule, citing the social influence and wealth of notable Euro-Ghanaian families. [89] Other studies found that, in Tanzania, skin bleaching has been regularly practiced by middle and working classes, as light skin was perceived to facilitate social mobility. [95] [89]

Skin whitening practices in several other African countries increased following the onset of independence movements against European colonial rule. [96] [62] Maya Allen attributed this to the increased flow of European products and commercial influence into colonized regions. [96] Several historians have suggested that the increased prevalence of skin whitening in "the Global South" is potentially tied to both precolonial notions of beauty and post-colonial hierarchies of race. [33]

Health hazards

Several chemical substances have been found to be effective in skin whitening, but some have been proven or suspected to be toxic. This includes compounds containing mercury, which can cause neurological and kidney problems. [97] These products also contain collagen, which can be harmful to the skin. It is present in day creams and beauty masks. Collagen is an insoluble fibrous protein that is too large to penetrate the skin, thus it can clog pores. [98]

The use of these products can be hazardous to health, potentially causing acne, stretch marks, skin cancer, [99] hypertension, or diabetes, especially when the product contains hydroquinone, [100] mercury, cortisone, or vitamin A. [101] Allergic reactions or undesirable effects such as uneven hyperpigmentation or patchy depigmentation can also occur. [102]

Among the ingredients, hydroquinone is also commonly found and is responsible for multiple side effects. It can interfere with the reagents used in capillary blood glucose meters, artificially raising blood glucose levels. [103]

In 1997, in Paris, the French police dismantled a network involved in the illegal trafficking of skin lightening products, primarily targeting Congolese migrants. Such products represent a significant market despite their health risks. Users resort to preparations containing mercury or bleach, or products containing corticosteroids or quinine. The Saint-Louis Hospital in Paris had to establish a specialized department to deal with the skin disorders caused by skin bleaching. [104]

The World Health Organization (WHO) has noted the significant presence of inorganic mercury added to skin lightening products, which is known to be associated with skin cancer. [105]

See also

Notes

Italics have been preserved whenever they appear in quotations. Text between square brackets are additional notes not present in the source.

  1. 1 2 "The transcriptional level is the first stage by which the expression of tyrosinase and related melanogenic enzymes may be modulated. Influential in this process, the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) is a basic helix-loop-helix leucine zipper transcription factor that regulates melanocyte cellular differentiation as well as the transcription of melanogenic enzymes (tyrosinase, TYRP1, and TYRP2) and melanosome structural proteins (MART-1 and PMEL17) [references omitted]." [40]
  2. 1 2 Many papers have described the signaling pathways affecting melanogenesis and other functions of melanocytes. The following reviews are suggested reading (all of which are available online at no cost):
    Smit, Vicanova, Pavel (2009). [42] For a description with emphasis on physiology, see Yamaguchi, Hearing (2009) [43] or Kondo (2011). [44] An extensive and detailed review was written by Slominski et al. (2004). [45]
  3. ↑ "In the skin, melanocytes are situated on the basal layer, which separates the dermis and epidermis. Approximately 36 keratinocytes surround one melanocyte. Together, they form the so-called epidermal melanin unit. The melanin produced and stored inside the melanocyte in the melanosomal compartment is transported via dendrites to the overlaying keratinocytes." [42]

    "Each melanocyte resides in the basal epithelial layer and, by virtue of its dendrites, interacts with approximately 36 keratinocytes to transfer melanosomes and protect the skin from photo-induced carcinogenesis. Furthermore, the amount and type of melanin produced and transferred to the keratinocytes with subsequent incorporation, aggregation, and degradation influences skin complexion coloration [reference omitted]." [40]

    Wu, Hammer (2014) describe the number of keratinocytes per melanocyte as above 40. [53]
  4. ↑ Research about the mechanism of melanosome transfer has been reviewed by Wu, and Hammer (2014). [53]
  5. 1 2 References about PAR2 and its role in skin pigmentation: Kim et al. (2016), [54] Choi et al. (2014), [55] Wu, Hammer (2014), [53] Ando et al. (2012), [56] Ando et al. (2010). [57]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human skin color</span>

Human skin color ranges from the darkest brown to the lightest hues. Differences in skin color among individuals is caused by variation in pigmentation, which is the result of genetics, exposure to the sun, disorders, or some combination thereof. Differences across populations evolved through natural selection or sexual selection, because of social norms and differences in environment, as well as regulations of the biochemical effects of ultraviolet radiation penetrating the skin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Melanin</span> Group of natural pigments found in most organisms

Melanin is a family of biomolecules organized as oligomers or polymers, which among other functions provide the pigments of many organisms. Melanin pigments are produced in a specialized group of cells known as melanocytes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Melanocyte</span> Melanin-producing cells of the skin

Melanocytes are melanin-producing neural crest-derived cells located in the bottom layer of the skin's epidermis, the middle layer of the eye, the inner ear, vaginal epithelium, meninges, bones, and heart found in many mammals and birds. Melanin is a dark pigment primarily responsible for skin color. Once synthesized, melanin is contained in special organelles called melanosomes which can be transported to nearby keratinocytes to induce pigmentation. Thus darker skin tones have more melanosomes present than lighter skin tones. Functionally, melanin serves as protection against UV radiation. Melanocytes also have a role in the immune system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Freckle</span> Melanin spots on skin

Freckles are clusters of concentrated melaninized cells which are most easily visible on people with a fair complexion. Freckles do not have an increased number of the melanin-producing cells, or melanocytes, but instead have melanocytes that overproduce melanin granules (melanosomes) changing the coloration of the outer skin cells (keratinocytes). As such, freckles are different from lentigines and moles, which are caused by accumulation of melanocytes in a small area. Freckles can appear on all types of skin tones. Of the six Fitzpatrick skin types, they are most common on skin tones 1 and 2, which usually belong to North Europeans. However, it can also be found on people all over the world. In England a historical term for freckles is summer-voys, sometimes spelt summervoise, which may be related to the German term Sommersprossen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human hair color</span> Pigmentation of human hair follicles

Human hair color is the pigmentation of human hair follicles and shafts due to two types of melanin: eumelanin and pheomelanin. Generally, the more melanin present, the darker the hair. Its tone depends on the ratio of black or brown eumelanin to yellow or red pheomelanin. Melanin levels can vary over time, causing a person's hair color to change, and one person can have hair follicles of more than one color. Some hair colors are associated with some ethnic groups because of the observed higher frequency of particular hair colors within their geographical region, e.g. straight, dark hair amongst East Asians, Southeast Asians, Polynesians, some Central Asians, and Native Americans; a large variety of dark, fair, curly, straight, wavy or bushy amongst Europeans, West Asians, some Central Asians, and North Africans; and curly, dark, and uniquely helical hair amongst Sub Saharan Africans. Bright red hair is found in some European populations, and hair turns gray, white, or "silver" with age.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Melanosome</span> Organelle found in animal cells used for the synthesis, storage and transport of melanin

A melanosome is an organelle found in animal cells and is the site for synthesis, storage and transport of melanin, the most common light-absorbing pigment found in the animal kingdom. Melanosomes are responsible for color and photoprotection in animal cells and tissues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hyperpigmentation</span> Darkening of an area of skin or nails due to increased melanin

Hyperpigmentation is the darkening of an area of skin or nails caused by increased melanin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Periorbital dark circles</span> Dark blemishes around the eyes

Periorbital dark circles are dark blemishes around the eyes. There are many causes of this symptom, including heredity and bruising.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Melasma</span> Medical condition

Melasma is a tan or dark skin discoloration. Melasma is thought to be caused by sun exposure, genetic predisposition, hormone changes, and skin irritation. Although it can affect anyone, it is particularly common in women, especially pregnant women and those who are taking oral or patch contraceptives or hormone replacement therapy medications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tyrosinase</span> Enzyme for controlling the production of melanin

Tyrosinase is an oxidase that is the rate-limiting enzyme for controlling the production of melanin. The enzyme is mainly involved in two distinct reactions of melanin synthesis otherwise known as the Raper–Mason pathway. Firstly, the hydroxylation of a monophenol and secondly, the conversion of an o-diphenol to the corresponding o-quinone. o-Quinone undergoes several reactions to eventually form melanin. Tyrosinase is a copper-containing enzyme present in plant and animal tissues that catalyzes the production of melanin and other pigments from tyrosine by oxidation. It is found inside melanosomes which are synthesized in the skin melanocytes. In humans, the tyrosinase enzyme is encoded by the TYR gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Azelaic acid</span> Organic chemical compound

Azelaic acid (AzA) is an organic compound with the formula HOOC(CH2)7COOH. This saturated dicarboxylic acid exists as a white powder. It is found in wheat, rye, and barley. It is a precursor to diverse industrial products including polymers and plasticizers, as well as being a component of a number of hair and skin conditioners. AzA inhibits tyrosinase.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arbutin</span> Glycoside

β-Arbutin, also known by its International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients (INCI) name, arbutin, is a glycosylated derivative of hydroquinone. β-Arbutin is naturally present in the leaves and bark of a variety of plants, notably the bearberry plant, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi. Utilized as a biosynthetic active ingredient in topical treatments for skin lightening, β-arbutin is aimed at addressing hyperpigmentation issues. Its mechanism of action involves inhibiting the activity of tyrosinase, an essential enzyme for melanin synthesis in the human skin, thereby leading to a reduction in hyperpigmentation. It is important to distinguish β-arbutin from its structurally similar stereoisomer, α-arbutin, which exhibits similar effects in clinical applications.

Gum depigmentation, also known as gum bleaching, is a procedure used in cosmetic dentistry to lighten or remove black spots or patches on the gums consisting of melanin. Melanin in skin is very common in inhabitants in many parts of the world due to genetic factors. Melanin pigmentation in skin, oral mucosa, inner ear and other organs is a detoxification mechanism. Some toxic agents bind to melanin and will move out of the tissue with the ageing cells and are expelled to the tissue surfaces. Also in the gums and oral mucosa a visible pigmentation is most often caused by genetic factors, but also by tobacco smoking or in a few cases by long-term use of certain medications. If stopping smoking or change of medication do not solve the problem with a disfigurating melanin pigmentation, a surgical operation may be performed. The procedure itself can involve laser ablation techniques.

Pigmentation disorders are disturbances of human skin color. There may be a loss or reduction, which may be related to loss of melanocytes or the inability of melanocytes to produce melanin or transport melanosomes correctly.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amelanism</span> Pigmentation abnormality

Amelanism is a pigmentation abnormality characterized by the lack of pigments called melanins, commonly associated with a genetic loss of tyrosinase function. Amelanism can affect fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals including humans. The appearance of an amelanistic animal depends on the remaining non-melanin pigments. The opposite of amelanism is melanism, a higher percentage of melanin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Melanocortin 1 receptor</span> Protein controlling mammalian coloration

The melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R), also known as melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor (MSHR), melanin-activating peptide receptor, or melanotropin receptor, is a G protein–coupled receptor that binds to a class of pituitary peptide hormones known as the melanocortins, which include adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and the different forms of melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH). It is coupled to Gαs and upregulates levels of cAMP by activating adenylyl cyclase in cells expressing this receptor. It is normally expressed in skin and melanocytes, and to a lesser degree in periaqueductal gray matter, astrocytes and leukocytes. In skin cancer, MC1R is highly expressed in melanomas but not carcinomas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dark skin</span> Human skin color

Dark skin is a type of human skin color that is rich in melanin pigments. People with dark skin are often referred to as black people, although this usage can be ambiguous in some countries where it is also used to specifically refer to different ethnic groups or populations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glyceryl octyl ascorbic acid</span> Chemical compound

Glyceryl octyl ascorbic acid (GO-VC) is an amphipathic derivative of vitamin C consisting of two ether linkages: a 1-octyl at position 2 and a glycerin at position 3. The chemical name is 2-glyceryl-3-octyl ascorbic acid. The isomer in which these two groups are swapped is also known.

α-Arbutin Glycoside

α-Arbutin, is a glycosylated hydroquinone, and an anomer of the naturally occurring arbutin. α-Arbutin is used in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries for its skin lightening effects, treatment of hyperpigmentation, and as a safer alternative to hydroquinone.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mahé, Antoine; Ly, Fatimata; Perret, Jean-Luc (2005). "Systemic complications of the cosmetic use of skin-bleaching products". International Journal of Dermatology. 44 (s1): 37–38. doi:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2005.02810.x. ISSN   1365-4632. PMID   16187958. S2CID   34311111.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Mercury in skin lightening products" (PDF). WHO. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 30, 2011. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
  3. ↑ Ryle, Robyn (2016). Questioning Gender: A Sociological Exploration. SAGE Publications. p. PT412. ISBN   9781506325484.
  4. ↑ Abbas, Nosheen. "Is Pakistan 'obsessed' with fair skin?". BBC News.
  5. ↑ Gilani, Sana (17 January 2017). "Did You Know? BBC has declared Pakistani 'whitening creams' POISONOUS". Daily Pakistan .
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Desmedt, B; Courselle, P; De Beer, JO; Rogiers, V; Grosber, M; Deconinck, E; De Paepe, K (June 2016). "Overview of skin whitening agents with an insight into the illegal cosmetic market in Europe". Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology. 30 (6): 943–50. doi: 10.1111/jdv.13595 . PMID   26953335. S2CID   37289982.
  7. ↑ Pitche, P.; Kombate, K.; Tchangai-Walla, K. (2005). "Cosmetic use of skin bleaching products and associated complications". International Journal of Dermatology. 44: 39–40. doi:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2005.02811.x. PMID   16187959. S2CID   37839422.
  8. ↑ Mendoza, Roger L. (May 2014). "The skin whitening industry in the Philippines". Journal of Public Health Policy. 35 (2): 219–238. doi:10.1057/jphp.2013.50. JSTOR   43288019. PMID   24352110. S2CID   205128211.
  9. 1 2 Tse, TW (September 2010). "Hydroquinone for skin lightening: safety profile, duration of use and when should we stop?". The Journal of Dermatological Treatment. 21 (5): 272–5. doi:10.3109/09546630903341945. PMID   20095963. S2CID   35316785.
  10. 1 2 3 Malathi, M; Thappa, DM (2013). "Systemic skin whitening/lightening agents: what is the evidence?". Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology. 79 (6): 842–6. doi: 10.4103/0378-6323.120752 . PMID   24177629.
  11. ↑ Dilokthornsakul, W; Dhippayom, T; Dilokthornsakul, P (June 2019). "The clinical effect of glutathione on skin color and other related skin conditions: A systematic review". Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology. 18 (3): 728–737. doi:10.1111/jocd.12910. PMID   30895708. S2CID   84842395.
  12. ↑ Sonthalia, Sidharth; Daulatabad, Deepashree; Sarkar, Rashmi (2016). "Glutathione as a skin whitening agent: Facts, myths, evidence and controversies". Indian J. Dermatol. Venereol. Leprol. 82 (3): 262–72. doi: 10.4103/0378-6323.179088 . PMID   27088927.
  13. ↑ Zhou, LL; Baibergenova, A (27 February 2017). "Melasma: systematic review of the systemic treatments". International Journal of Dermatology. 56 (9): 902–908. doi:10.1111/ijd.13578. PMID   28239840. S2CID   21683251.
  14. ↑ Taraz, M; Niknam, S; Ehsani, AH (30 January 2017). "Tranexamic acid in treatment of melasma: A comprehensive review of clinical studies". Dermatologic Therapy. 30 (3): e12465. doi: 10.1111/dth.12465 . PMID   28133910. S2CID   3910189.
  15. ↑ Rendon, Marta; Berneburg, Mark; Arellano, Ivonne; Picardo, Mauro (May 2006). "Treatment of melasma". Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. Supplement 2. 54 (5): S272–S281. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2005.12.039. PMID   16631968. S2CID   25222978.
  16. 1 2 Trivedi, MK; Yang, FC; Cho, BK (March 2017). "A review of laser and light therapy in melasma". International Journal of Women's Dermatology. 3 (1): 11–20. doi:10.1016/j.ijwd.2017.01.004. PMC   5418955 . PMID   28492049.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Giudice, Pascal Del; Yves, Pinier (2002). "The widespread use of skin lightening creams in Senegal: a persistent public health problem in West Africa". International Journal of Dermatology. 41 (2): 69–72. doi:10.1046/j.1365-4362.2002.01335.x. ISSN   1365-4632. PMID   11982639. S2CID   37891827.
  18. 1 2 Shroff, Hemal; Diedrichs, Phillippa C.; Craddock, Nadia (2018-01-23). "Skin Color, Cultural Capital, and Beauty Products: An Investigation of the Use of Skin Fairness Products in Mumbai, India". Frontiers in Public Health. 5: 365. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2017.00365 . ISSN   2296-2565. PMC   5787082 . PMID   29410952.
  19. ↑ Desmedt, B.; Courselle, P.; Beer, J. O. De; Rogiers, V.; Grosber, M.; Deconinck, E.; Paepe, K. De (2016). "Overview of skin whitening agents with an insight into the illegal cosmetic market in Europe". Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology. 30 (6): 943–950. doi: 10.1111/jdv.13595 . ISSN   1468-3083. PMID   26953335. S2CID   37289982.
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Olumide, Yetunde M.; Akinkugbe, Ayesha O.; Altraide, Dan; Mohammed, Tahir; Ahamefule, Ngozi; Ayanlowo, Shola; Onyekonwu, Chinwe; Essen, Nyomudim (April 2008). "Complications of chronic use of skin lightening cosmetics". International Journal of Dermatology. 47 (4): 344–353. doi:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2008.02719.x. ISSN   0011-9059. PMID   18377596. S2CID   8159382.
  21. 1 2 Westerhof, W.; Kooyers, T. J. (2005). "Hydroquinone and its analogs in dermatology – a potential health risk". Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology. 4 (2): 55–59. doi:10.1111/j.1473-2165.2005.40202.x. ISSN   1473-2165. PMID   17166200. S2CID   12971253.
  22. 1 2 Fihlani, Pumza (January 2013). "Africa: Where black is not really beautiful". BBC News.
  23. ↑ Jacobs, Meagan; Levine, Susan; Abney, Kate; Davids, Lester (2016). "Fifty shades of African lightness: A bio-psychosocial review of the global phenomenon of skin lightening practices". Journal of Public Health in Africa. 7 (2): 552. doi:10.4081/jphia.2016.552. PMC   5345401 . PMID   28299156.
  24. ↑ Backhaus, Anne; Okunmwendia, Ella (2020-06-16). "Skin Bleaching in Ghana: "When You Are Light-Skinned, You Earn More"". Global Societies. Spiegel International . Der Spiegel. Archived from the original on 2020-10-01.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 Olumide, Yetunde Mercy (2016-10-06). The vanishing black African woman: a compendium of the global skin-lightening practice. Mankon, Bamenda, Cameroon. ISBN   978-9956-763-56-6. OCLC   961248923.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  26. ↑ Dlova, N. C.; Hamed, S. H.; Tsoka-Gwegweni, J.; Grobler, A. (2015). "Skin lightening practices: an epidemiological study of South African women of African and Indian ancestries". British Journal of Dermatology. 173 (S2): 2–9. doi:10.1111/bjd.13556. ISSN   1365-2133. PMID   26207658. S2CID   39294986.
  27. 1 2 3 Davids, Lester M.; Wyk, Jennifer van; Khumalo, Nonhlanhla P.; Jablonski, Nina G. (2016-11-24). "The phenomenon of skin lightening: Is it right to be light?". South African Journal of Science. 112 (11/12): 5. doi: 10.17159/sajs.2016/20160056 . hdl: 11427/34798 . ISSN   1996-7489.
  28. ↑ Narayan, A. Bloomberg Business Week, A Lucrative Promise for India's men: Whiter skin, Dec 5, 2013
  29. ↑ Narayan, Adi (5 December 2013). "A Lucrative Promise for India's Men: Whiter Skin". Bloomberg News.
  30. 1 2 Nagar, Itisha (April 2018). "The Unfair Selection: A Study on Skin-Color Bias in Arranged Indian Marriages". SAGE Open. 8 (2): 215824401877314. doi: 10.1177/2158244018773149 . ISSN   2158-2440.
  31. ↑ McDougall, Andrew (June 4, 2013). "Skin lightening trend in Asia boosts global market". Cosmetics Design Asia.
  32. ↑ "Skin-whitening creams: The battle against illegal products". BBC. 6 August 2018. Retrieved 15 September 2018.
  33. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Glenn, Evelyn Nakano, ed. (2009). Shades of difference: why skin color matters. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. ISBN   978-0-8047-7099-6. OCLC   646829010.
  34. 1 2 Hunter, Margaret (2011). "Buying Racial Capital: Skin-Bleaching and Cosmetic Surgery in a Globalized World" (PDF). Journal of Pan African Studies. 4.
  35. 1 2 3 Lewis, Kelly M.; Robkin, Navit; Gaska, Karie; Njoki, Lillian Carol (March 2011). "Investigating Motivations for Women's Skin Bleaching in Tanzania". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 35 (1): 29–37. doi:10.1177/0361684310392356. ISSN   0361-6843. S2CID   71613149.
  36. ↑ Charles, Christopher A. D. (2011-12-01). "Skin Bleaching and the Prestige Complexion of Sexual Attraction". Sexuality & Culture. 15 (4): 375–390. doi:10.1007/s12119-011-9107-0. ISSN   1936-4822. S2CID   146278461.
  37. ↑ "Where Does the Asian Obsession With White Skin Come From?". thediplomat.com.
  38. ↑ Maycock, Matthew William (2017-04-03). "Looking tājā 'fresh'; skin whitening, and emergent masculinities in far-west Nepal". Contemporary South Asia. 25 (2): 153–166. doi:10.1080/09584935.2017.1321619. ISSN   0958-4935. S2CID   151955288.
  39. ↑ Julien, Seneschal (2014). "Accelerating bleaching in vitiligo: balancing benefits versus risks". Experimental Dermatology. 23 (12): 879–880. doi:10.1111/exd.12508. PMID   25039467.
  40. 1 2 3 4 Ebanks, Jody P.; Wickett, R. Randall; Boissy, Raymond E. (2009). "Mechanisms Regulating Skin Pigmentation: The Rise and Fall of Complexion Coloration". Int. J. Mol. Sci. 10 (9): 4066–4087. doi: 10.3390/ijms10094066 . PMC   2769151 . PMID   19865532.
  41. ↑ Gruber, James V.; Holtz, Robert (2013). "Examining the Impact of Skin Lighteners In Vitro". Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 2013: 1–7. doi: 10.1155/2013/702120 . PMC   3655678 . PMID   23738040.
  42. 1 2 3 4 Smit, Nico; Vicanova, Jana; Pavel, Stan (2009). "The Hunt for Natural Skin Whitening Agents". Int. J. Mol. Sci. 10 (12): 5326–5349. doi: 10.3390/ijms10125326 . PMC   2801997 . PMID   20054473.
  43. 1 2 Yamaguchi, Yuji; Hearing, Vincent J. (2009). "Physiological factors that regulate skin pigmentation". BioFactors. 35 (2): 193–199. doi:10.1002/biof.29. PMC   2793097 . PMID   19449448.
  44. ↑ Kondo, Taisuke; Hearing, Vincent J. (2011). "Update on the regulation of mammalian melanocyte function and skin pigmentation". Expert Rev. Dermatol. 6 (1): 97–108. doi:10.1586/edm.10.70. PMC   3093193 . PMID   21572549.
  45. 1 2 3 Slominski, Andrzej; Tobin, Desmond J.; Shibahara, Shigeki; Wortsman, Jacobo (2004). "Melanin Pigmentation in Mammalian Skin and its Hormonal Regulation". Physiol. Rev. 84 (4): 1155–228. doi:10.1152/physrev.00044.2003. PMID   15383650.
  46. 1 2 3 4 Chen, Hongxiang; Weng, Qing Y.; Fisher, David E. (2014). "UV Signaling Pathways within the Skin". J. Invest. Dermatol. 134 (4): 2080–2085. doi:10.1038/jid.2014.161. PMC   4102648 . PMID   24759085.
  47. 1 2 3 Rodríguez, Carlos Iván; Setaluri, Vijayasaradhi (2014). "Cyclic AMP (cAMP) signaling in melanocytes and melanoma". Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 563: 22–7. doi:10.1016/j.abb.2014.07.003. PMID   25017568.
  48. ↑ Lee, Ai-Young; Noh, Minsoo (2013). "The regulation of epidermal melanogenesis via cAMP and/or PKC signaling pathways: insights for the development of hypopigmented agents". Arch. Pharm. Res. 36 (7): 792–801. doi:10.1007/s12272-013-0130-6. PMID   23604723. S2CID   35429951.
  49. ↑ Marzuka-Alcalá, Alexander; Gabree, Michele Jacobs; Tsao, Hensin (2014). "Melanoma Susceptibility Genes and Risk Assessment". Molecular Diagnostics for Melanoma. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 1102. pp. 381–93. doi:10.1007/978-1-62703-727-3_20. ISBN   978-1-62703-726-6. PMID   24258989.
  50. ↑ Law, Matthew H.; MacGregor, Stuart; Hayward, Nicholas K. (2012). "Melanoma Genetics: Recent Findings Take Us Beyond Well-Traveled Pathways". J. Invest. Dermatol. 132 (7): 1763–74. doi: 10.1038/jid.2012.75 . PMID   22475760.
  51. ↑ Nelson, Andrew A.; Tsao, Hensin (2009). "Melanoma and genetics". Clin. Dermatol. 27 (1): 46–52. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2008.09.005. PMID   19095153.
  52. ↑ Sturm, Richard A. (2009). "Molecular genetics of human pigmentation diversity". Hum. Mol. Genet. 18 (R1): R9–17. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddp003 . PMID   19297406.
  53. 1 2 3 4 Wu, Wufeng; Hammer, John A. (2014). "Melanosome transfer: It is best to give and receive". Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 29: 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.ceb.2014.02.003. PMC   4130791 . PMID   24662021.
  54. ↑ Kim, Ji Young; Kim, Dae Suk; Sohn, Hyojung; Lee, Eun Jung; Oh, Sang Ho (2016). "PAR-2 is involved in melanogenesis by mediating stem cell factor production in keratinocytes". Exp. Dermatol. 25 (6): 487–9. doi: 10.1111/exd.12982 . PMID   26909822.
  55. ↑ Choi, Hye-In; et al. (2014). "Melanosome uptake is associated with the proliferation and differentiation of keratinocytes". Arch. Dermatol. Res. 306 (1): 59–66. doi:10.1007/s00403-013-1422-x. PMID   24173125. S2CID   24074153.
  56. ↑ Ando, Hideya; et al. (2012). "Melanosomes are transferred from melanocytes to keratinocytes through the processes of packaging, release, uptake, and dispersion". J. Invest. Dermatol. 132 (4): 1222–9. doi: 10.1038/jid.2011.413 . PMID   22189785.
  57. ↑ Ando, Hideya; et al. (2010). "Keratinocytes in culture accumulate phagocytosed melanosomes in the perinuclear area". Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 23 (1): 129–33. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-148X.2009.00640.x . PMID   19761520. S2CID   29066374.
  58. ↑ van den Boorn, Jasper G.; Melief, Cornelis J.; Luiten, Rosalie M. (2011). "The Monobenzone-induced depigmentation: from enzymatic blockade to autoimmunity". Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 24 (4): 673–9. doi:10.1111/j.1755-148X.2011.00878.x. PMID   21689385. S2CID   44353799.
  59. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Jablonski, Nina G. (2012). Living Color: the Biological and Social Meaning of Skin Color. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN   978-0-520-95377-2. OCLC   808348571.
  60. 1 2 Anekwe, Obiora (2015). "The Global Phenomenon of Skin Bleaching: A Crisis in Public Health (Part 1)". Voices in Bioethics. doi:10.7916/vib.v1i.6599. ISSN   2691-4875.
  61. 1 2 Iftekhar, Noama; Zhitny, Vladislav Pavlovich (2021). "Overview of Skin Bleaching History and Origins". Dermatology. 237 (2): 306–308. doi:10.1159/000509727. ISSN   1018-8665. PMID   32814332. S2CID   221200520.
  62. 1 2 3 Blay, Yaba (2011). "Skin Bleaching and White Supremacy" (PDF). Journal of Pan African Studies. 4. S2CID   39231719. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-02-22.
  63. ↑ Charles, Christopher (2014-01-12). "Racial Socialization, Black Identity Transactions, Beauty and Skin Bleaching". SSRN   2378112.
  64. 1 2 Bragge, Laurie (2007). "Issues of Stability in the Southern Highlands Province". In Nicole Haley; Ronald J. May (eds.). Conflict and Resource Development: In The Southern Highlands of Papua New Guinea. Vol. 3. ANU Press. pp. 89–100. doi: 10.22459/crd.11.2007.07 . ISBN   9781921313455. JSTOR   j.ctt24h8k4.13 .
  65. ↑ "Skin Deep: Dying to be White". CNN. 2002-05-15. Retrieved 2010-09-08.
  66. ↑ P.H., Li, Eric; Jeong, Min, Hyun; W., Belk, Russell (2008-01-01). "Skin Lightening and Beauty in Four Asian Cultures". NA – Advances in Consumer Research. 35. Archived from the original on 2019-06-18. Retrieved 2016-10-26.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  67. 1 2 Johnson, Guillaume D.; et al., eds. (2019-05-26). Race in the marketplace: crossing critical boundaries. Cham, Switzerland. ISBN   978-3-030-11711-5. OCLC   1090865917.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  68. 1 2 Olumide, Yetunde Mercy (6 October 2016). The vanishing black African woman: a compendium of the global skin-lightening practice. Mankon, Bamenda, Cameroon. ISBN   978-9956-763-56-6. OCLC   961248923.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  69. 1 2 3 4 Pan, Elysia (April 2013). Beautiful White: An Illumination of Asian Skin-Whitening Culture (Honors thesis). Trinity College of Arts and Sciences. p. 6.
  70. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Glenn, Evelyn Nakano (2008-02-11). "Yearning for Lightness: Transnational Circuits in the Marketing and Consumption of Skin Lighteners". Gender & Society. doi:10.1177/0891243208316089. S2CID   145262932.
  71. ↑ Shankar, Ravi (2007). "Fair Skin in South Asia: an obsession?". Journal of Pakistan Association of Dermatologists. 17: 100–104.
  72. ↑ Mishra, Neha. "India and Colorism: The Finer Nuances". Washington University Global Studies Law Review. 14.
  73. 1 2 3 Li, Eric; Min, Hyun Jeong; Belk, R.W.; Kimura, J.; Bahl, Shalini (2008-01-01). "Skin lightening and beauty in four Asian cultures". Advances in Consumer Research. 35: 444–445.
  74. 1 2 3 Shankar, P Ravi; Palaian, Subish (2007-06-01). "Fair skin in South Asia: An obsession?". Journal of Pakistan Association of Dermatologists. 17: 101.
  75. 1 2 Hamed, Saja H.; Tayyem, Reema; Nimer, Nisreen; AlKhatib, Hatim S. (2010). "Skin-lightening practice among women living in Jordan: prevalence, determinants, and user's awareness". International Journal of Dermatology. 49 (4): 414–420. doi:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2010.04463.x. ISSN   0011-9059. PMID   20465697 – via PubMed.
  76. 1 2 Alrayyes, Sarah Fahad; Alrayyes, Saad Fahad; Farooq Dar, Umar (2020). "Skin-lightening practices behind the veil: An epidemiological study among Saudi women". Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology. 19 (1): 147–153. doi:10.1111/jocd.12972. ISSN   1473-2165. PMID   31058398 – via PubMed.
  77. 1 2 3 4 Oumeish, Oumeish Youssef (2001-07-01). "The cultural and philosophical concepts of cosmetics in beauty and art through the medical history of mankind". Clinics in Dermatology. 19 (4): 375–386. doi:10.1016/S0738-081X(01)00194-8. ISSN   0738-081X. PMID   11535377.
  78. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Tate, Shirley Anne (2015-11-12). Skin bleaching in Black Atlantic zones: shade shifters. [Basingstoke]. ISBN   978-1-137-49846-5. OCLC   922007360.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  79. 1 2 Jain, Nk; Chaudhri, Sk (2009). "History of cosmetics". Asian Journal of Pharmaceutics. 3 (3): 164. doi: 10.4103/0973-8398.56292 (inactive 1 November 2024). ISSN   0973-8398.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  80. 1 2 3 4 Skinner, James; Gilbert, Keith; Edwards, Allan, eds. (2003). Some like it hot: the beach as a cultural dimension. Oxford: Meyer & Meyer Sport. ISBN   1-84126-098-3. OCLC   51622925.
  81. 1 2 3 Stewart, Susan (2017). Painted Faces: A Colourful History of Cosmetics. Amberley Publishing Limited.
  82. ↑ "Arsenic Pills and Lead Foundation: The History of Toxic Makeup". National Geographic News. 2016-09-22. Archived from the original on February 29, 2020. Retrieved 2020-02-28.
  83. ↑ Mueller, Max Perry (11 September 2017). Race and the Making of the Mormon People. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 29, 49, 51, 108. ISBN   978-1-4696-3375-6 – via Google Books.
  84. ↑ "'Color Of Christ': A Story Of Race And Religion In America". NPR. 19 November 2012.
  85. ↑ Dart, John (2 Mar 1979). "Indians Hope to Shift Mormon View of Their Skin Color". Washington Post . Washington D.C. Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 25 Sep 2022 – via Internet Archive.
  86. 1 2 3 4 Peiss, Kathy Lee. (1998). Hope in a jar: the making of America's beauty culture (1st ed.). New York: Metropolitan Books. ISBN   0-8050-5550-9. OCLC   37783053.
  87. 1 2 Robinson, Petra (2011-06-10). "Perceptions of Beauty and Identity: The Skin Bleaching Phenomenon in Jamaica". Adult Education Research Conference.
  88. 1 2 Hall, Ronald E., ed. (2013). The melanin millennium: skin color as 21st-century international discourse. Dordrecht: Springer. ISBN   978-94-007-4608-4. OCLC   810444219.
  89. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Tate, Shirley Anne (12 November 2015). Skin bleaching in Black Atlantic zones: shade shifters. [Basingstoke]. ISBN   978-1-137-49846-5. OCLC   922007360.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  90. ↑ Hernandez, Tanya (2015). "Colorism and the Law in Latin America – Global Perspectives on Colorism Conference Remarks". Washington University Global Studies Law Review. 14.
  91. ↑ Johanna Ferreira (2018-11-02). "How Latin America's Obsession With Whiteness Is Hurting Us". HipLatina. Retrieved 2020-04-20.
  92. ↑ Jacobs, Meagan; Levine, Susan; Abney, Kate; Davids, Lester (2016-12-31). "Fifty shades of African lightness: a bio-psychosocial review of the global phenomenon of skin lightening practices". Journal of Public Health in Africa. 7 (2): 552. doi:10.4081/jphia.2016.552. ISSN   2038-9930. PMC   5345401 . PMID   28299156.
  93. 1 2 Thomas, L. M. (2012-04-01). "Skin Lighteners, Black Consumers and Jewish Entrepreneurs in South Africa". History Workshop Journal. 73 (1): 259–283. doi:10.1093/hwj/dbr017. ISSN   1363-3554. PMID   22830098. S2CID   11676982.
  94. 1 2 Dlova, N. C.; Hamed, S. H.; Tsoka-Gwegweni, J.; Grobler, A. (2015). "Skin lightening practices: an epidemiological study of South African women of African and Indian ancestries". British Journal of Dermatology. 173 (S2): 2–9. doi:10.1111/bjd.13556. ISSN   1365-2133. PMID   26207658. S2CID   39294986.
  95. ↑ Fritsch, Katharina (2014-12-22). "'Trans-skin': Analyzing the practice of skin bleaching among middle-class women in Dar es Salaam". Ethnicities. 17 (6): 749–770. doi:10.1177/1468796814565216. ISSN   1468-7968. S2CID   147424581.
  96. 1 2 Maya Allen. "The Reality of Skin Bleaching and the History Behind It". Byrdie. Retrieved 2020-03-04.
  97. ↑ "Health Effects of Exposures to Mercury". www.epa.gov. 3 September 2015. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
  98. ↑ "Liste des composants nocifs des cosmétiques industriels : A à C". cosmetiques-bio.net.
  99. ↑ "A Abidjan, les "go" veulent toutes devenir blanches". 6 September 2012. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
  100. ↑ "Produits éclaircissants pour la peau" . Retrieved 3 July 2023.
  101. ↑ "Ivory Coast bans potentially deadly skin-whitening creams". TheGuardian.com . Agence France-Presse. 7 May 2015. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
  102. ↑ "Peau noire, masque éclaircissant". 31 May 2011. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
  103. ↑ Bouché CH, Garnier JP, Choukem SP, Gautier JF, Falsely elevated capillary glucose and ketone levels and use of skin lightening creams, BMJ, 2015;351:h3879
  104. ↑ "Geneva highlights dark side of skin whitening". 8 June 2010. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
  105. ↑ "Mercury exposure and health risks associated with use of skin". 2022. medRxiv   10.1101/2022.08.02.22277906v1 .
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.