Pregnancy-associated femicide

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Pregnancy-associated femicide is a form of gender-based violence involving the murder of a woman during the period of pregnancy and up to 1 year after childbirth. [1] [2]

Contents

Pregnancy increases the likelihood of femicide. [1] Globally, intimate partner violence (IPV) precedes the majority of pregnancy-associated femicides, with male intimate partners being the primary perpetrators. [3] In the United States, the leading cause of death for pregnant and postpartum women is femicide. [4] Women are more likely to be murdered during the pregnancy and postpartum period than to die from the three principal obstetric causes of maternal death (high-blood pressure disorders, hemorrhage, and sepsis). [4]

Pregnancy-associated femicide is a developing field of study. [3] Researchers and activists are calling for the implementation of intervention methods in healthcare and policy, as well as standardized documentation of incidence rate, in order to address the sociopolitical factors contributing to the issue. [3]

Statistics

United States

Femicide is the leading cause of death for pregnant and postpartum women. [4] The risk of femicide for pregnant and postpartum women is 35% greater than for nonpregnant and nonpostpartum women. [2] As of 2020, the pregnancy-associated femicide ratio was 5.23 femicides per 100,000 live births. [2] This represents a 32.4% increase from the previous year, in correspondence with the increase in IPV since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. [2] Femicides during pregnancy represented 54% of these cases. [2] Black women accounted for 55% of cases; White women accounted for 30.1%; and Hispanic women and other racialized groups accounted for the remainder. [2] In 45% of cases, the victims were under 25 years old. [2] Firearms were responsible for 81% of incidents. [2] Assault by a sharp object and strangulation were, respectively, the second and third most common method of homicide. [5]

When data on victim-perpetrator relationship is available, most pregnancy-associated femicides involve a precedence of IPV, and nearly ⅔ of cases took place within the home. [2] [5] Female victims of IPV, for whom 1 in 6 are first abused during pregnancy, [6] are 4 times as likely to report increased severity in violence during pregnancy than nonpregnant abused women. [7] The risk of being a victim of femicide is therefore tripled for women experiencing IPV during pregnancy. [3]

Global

While research on pregnancy-associated femicide primarily centres the United States, recent emergent research on global trends largely corroborates the findings of American researchers. [1] Globally, pregnancy represents a significant risk factor in the likelihood of femicide. [1] Male intimate partners compose the majority of perpetrators, and between ⅓ to ⅔ of cases were preceded by IPV. [3] In Argentina, where rates of femicide are on the rise, femicide by an intimate partner is as a leading cause of death for pregnant and postpartum women. [8]

Limitations of statistics

The maternal mortality ratio does not include pregnancy-associated femicide. [1] Furthermore, death records in the majority of countries are not required to include victim-perpetrator relationship or history of IPV. [1] Researchers therefore suggest that rates of incidence are higher than reported due to the lack of standardization in documenting pregnancy-associated femicides. [1] [2]

Laws and policies

United States

38 American states have laws with harsher penalties if the victim is murdered while pregnant. [9] The Unborn Victims of Violence Act of 2004 recognizes a fetus as a legal crime victim if "fetal injury or death occurs during the commission of a federal violent crime". [10] These laws define the fetus as a person "for the purpose of criminal prosecution of the offender" (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2008). [9]

The United States does not have specific policy addressing victims of femicide, and does not provide a legal definition of femicide in its criminal code. [11]

Latin America

As of 2022, policy changes in 20 Latin American countries have introduced femicide as a distinct type of homicide. [12] Latin American feminist movements are demanding further legislation addressing pregnancy as a significant risk factor. [13]

Intervention

Healthcare

Intimate Partner Violence screening and care

Prenatal and postnatal care visits represent an opportunity for patients to disclose abuse, or for healthcare providers to identify warning signs of IPV. [3] Researchers therefore recommend universal screening for IPV during obstetric visits, as well as standardized, adequate training for obstetricians in identifying IPV and providing care in cases of positive screening. [3]

Racial disparity

Studies identify structural racial disparities in healthcare as contributing to the elevated rate of pregnancy-associated femicide amongst Black women. [3] Due to historical racial biases in the healthcare system, Black female patients have reduced access to prenatal and postnatal care, and may be mistrustful of healthcare providers. [3] Consequently, they have fewer opportunities to disclose IPV during pregnancy, and are less likely to do so during obstetric visits, thus decreasing the chance for early intervention. [3] Researchers therefore emphasize addressing racial inequities in healthcare, as well as implementing training programs for providers concerning racial biases, as a significant intervention method. [3]

Reproductive rights

The lack of access to safe and legal abortion increases the risk pregnancy-associated femicide by an intimate partner. [13] Abuse during a previous pregnancy is cited by 27.3% of women as an influencing factor in their decision to get an abortion. [13] Researchers in the United States caution that recent legislation restricting access to abortion, like the Texas Heartbeat Act and the overturning of Roe V. Wade in 2022, risks exacerbating the increasing number of pregnancy-associated femicides. [2] [4] [8] Researchers and feminist movements like Ni una menos echo these warnings regarding women's reproductive rights in Latin America. [8] [13] The implementation and maintenance of reproductive rights is therefore cited as a crucial intervention method. [2] [8] [13]

Gun control

In the United States, the likelihood of intimate partner homicide by state corresponds to state levels of gun ownership, [4] and firearms are the primary weapon in pregnancy-associated femicides. [2] Researchers therefore identify stricter gun laws, specifically in the United States, as a necessary intervention. [1] [2] [4]

Policy and standardized documentation

Researchers recommend the universal adoption of pregnancy and history of IPV checkboxes in homicide death records, as well the inclusion of pregnancy-associated femicide in maternal mortality reviews. [3] [5] They maintain that accurate and efficient documentation of incidence rates increases efficiency in prevention. [3]

Notable cases

United States

Laci Peterson (1975-2002) was murdered on December 24, 2002 while 7 months pregnant. [14] Laci’s husband, Scott Peterson, was convicted in 2004 of first-degree murder for her death, and of second-degree murder for the death of their unborn son Conner. [14] The alternate title for the Unborn Victims of Violence Act of 2004 is Laci and Conner's Law. [10] The release of the Netflix docuseries American Murder: Laci Peterson on August 14, 2024, and the Peacock docuseries Face to Face with Scott Peterson on August 20, 2024 generated renewed public attention on the case. [15]

Argentina

Chiara Páez (2001-2015) was beaten to death in May 2015 during her first trimester of pregnancy. [13] Her boyfriend, Manuel Mansilla, was convicted for her murder in September 2017. [13] Chiara’s family maintains that Manuel’s motive was her unintended pregnancy. [13] Chiara’s murder sparked the formation of the Ni una menos movement in Argentina, which then spread to other Latin American countries. [13] The elevated rates of femicide and violence against women in Latin America, as well as the decriminalization and legalization of abortion, are amongst the central issues addressed by the movement. [13]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Unborn Victims of Violence Act</span> Law that recognizes an embryo or fetus as a legal victim

The Unborn Victims of Violence Act of 2004 is a United States law that recognizes an embryo or fetus in utero as a legal victim, if they are injured or killed during the commission of any of over 60 listed federal crimes of violence. The law defines "child in utero" as "a member of the species Homo sapiens, at any stage of development, who is carried in the womb."

Uxoricide is the killing of one's own wife. It can refer to the act itself or the person who carries it out. It can also be used in the context of the killing of one's own girlfriend. Conversely, the killing of a husband or boyfriend is called mariticide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Femicide</span> Murder of women or girls because of their sex

Femicide or feminicide is a term for the murdering of women, often because of their gender. Femicide can be perpetrated by either sex but is more often committed by men. This is most likely due to unequal power between men and women as well as harmful gender roles, stereotypes, or social norms.

Human rights in Mexico refers to moral principles or norms that describe certain standards of human behaviour in Mexico, and are regularly protected as legal rights in municipal and international law. The problems include torture, extrajudicial killings and summary executions, police repression, sexual murder, and, more recently, news reporter assassinations.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is domestic violence by a current or former spouse or partner in an intimate relationship against the other spouse or partner. IPV can take a number of forms, including physical, verbal, emotional, economic and sexual abuse. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines IPV as "any behavior within an intimate relationship that causes physical, psychological or sexual harm to those in the relationship, including acts of physical aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse and controlling behaviors." IPV is sometimes referred to simply as battery, or as spouse or partner abuse.

Domestic violence occurs across the world, in various cultures, and affects people across society, at all levels of economic status; however, indicators of lower socioeconomic status have been shown to be risk factors for higher levels of domestic violence in several studies. In the United States, according to the Bureau of Justice Statistics in 1995, women reported a six times greater rate of intimate partner violence than men. However, studies have found that men are much less likely to report victimization in these situations.

Violence against women in Peru is defined as harassment or violence propagated against those who are born women. Intimate partner violence (IPV) is the most common form of gender-based violence that occurs though it can occur concurrently with sexual and emotional violence.

Intimate partner sexual violence (IPSV) deals with sexual violence within the context of domestic violence. Intimate partner sexual violence is defined by any unwanted sexual contact or activity by an intimate partner in order to control an individual through fear, threats, or violence. Women are the primary victims of this type of violence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic violence</span> Abuse of members of the same household

Domestic violence is violence or other abuse that occurs in a domestic setting, such as in a marriage or cohabitation. The term "domestic violence" is often used as a synonym for "intimate partner violence", which is committed by one of the people in an intimate relationship against the other person, and can take place in relationships or between former spouses or partners. In its broadest sense, domestic violence also involves violence against children, parents, or the elderly. It can assume multiple forms, including physical, verbal, emotional, economic, religious, reproductive, financial abuse, or sexual abuse, or combinations of these. It can range from subtle, coercive forms to marital rape and other violent physical abuse, such as choking, beating, female genital mutilation, and acid throwing that may result in disfigurement or death, and includes the use of technology to harass, control, monitor, stalk or hack. Domestic murder includes stoning, bride burning, honor killing, and dowry death, which sometimes involves non-cohabitating family members. In 2015, the United Kingdom's Home Office widened the definition of domestic violence to include coercive control.

Foeticide, or feticide, is the act of killing a fetus, or causing a miscarriage. Definitions differ between legal and medical applications, whereas in law, feticide frequently refers to a criminal offense, in medicine the term generally refers to a part of an abortion procedure in which a provider intentionally induces fetal demise to avoid the chance of an unintended live birth, or as a standalone procedure in the case of selective reduction.

Pregnancy when coupled with domestic violence is a form of intimate partner violence (IPV) where health risks may be amplified. Abuse during pregnancy, whether physical, verbal or emotional, produces many adverse physical and psychological effects for both the mother and fetus. Domestic violence during pregnancy is categorized as abusive behavior towards a pregnant woman, where the pattern of abuse can often change in terms of severity and frequency of violence. Abuse may be a long-standing problem in a relationship that continues after a woman becomes pregnant or it may commence in pregnancy. Although female-to-male partner violence occurs in these settings, the overwhelming form of domestic violence is perpetrated by men against women. Pregnancy provides a unique opportunity for healthcare workers to screen women for domestic violence though a recent review found that the best way in which to do this is unclear. Reducing domestic violence in pregnancy should improve outcomes for mothers and babies though more good quality studies are needed to work out effective ways of screening pregnant women.

Domestic violence against men is violence or other physical abuse towards men in a domestic setting, such as in marriage or cohabitation. As with domestic violence against women, violence against men may constitute a crime, but laws vary between jurisdictions. Intimate partner violence (IPV) against men is generally less recognized by society than intimate partner violence against women, which can act as a further block to men reporting their situation or otherwise seeking help.

Forced abortion is a form of reproductive coercion that refers to the act of compelling a woman to undergo termination of a pregnancy against her will or without explicit consent. Forced abortion may also be defined as coerced abortion, and may occur due to a variety of outside forces such as societal pressure, or due to intervention by perpetrators such as an intimate partner, parental guardian, medical practitioners, or others who may cause abortion by force, threat or coercion. It may also occur by taking advantage of a situation where a pregnant individual is unable to give consent, or when valid consent is in question due to duress. This may also include the instances when the conduct was neither justified by medical or hospital treatment, which does not include instances in which the pregnant individual is at risk of life-threatening injury due to unsustainable pregnancy. Similar to other forms of reproductive coercion such as forced sterilization, forced abortion may include a physical invasion of female reproductive organs, therefore creating the possibly of causing long term threat or injury preventing viable future pregnancies. Forced abortion is considered a human rights violation by the United Nations due to its failure to comply with the human right to reproductive choice and control without coercion, discrimination, and violence.

Reproductive coercion is a collection of behaviors that interfere with decision-making related to reproductive health. These behaviors are often perpetrated by a current, former, or hopeful intimate or romantic partner, but they can also be perpetrated by parents or in-laws, or by policies of institutions or government. Coercive behaviors infringe on individuals' reproductive rights and reduce their reproductive autonomy.

Domestic violence in Kenya constitutes any harmful behavior against a family member or partner, including rape, assault, physical abuse, and forced prostitution. Domestic violence in Kenya reflects worldwide statistics in that women are the overwhelming majority of victims. Over 40% of married women in Kenya have reported being victims of either domestic violence or sexual abuse. Worldwide, over 30% of "ever-partnered women" aged 15 and older have experienced physical or sexual partner violence. The distinct factors and causes of this high percentage have often not been studied due to lack of data.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maternal mortality in the United States</span> Overview of maternal mortality in the United States

Maternal mortality refers to the death of a woman during her pregnancy or up to a year after her pregnancy has terminated; this metric only includes causes related to the pregnancy, and does not include accidental causes. Some sources will define maternal mortality as the death of a woman up to 42 days after the pregnancy has ended, instead of one year. In 1986, the CDC began tracking pregnancy-related deaths to gather information and determine what was causing these deaths by creating the Pregnancy-Related Mortality Surveillance System. According to a 2010–2011 report although the United States was spending more on healthcare than any other country in the world, more than two women died during childbirth every day, making maternal mortality in the United States the highest when compared to 49 other countries in the developed world.

Violence against women in the United States is the use of domestic abuse, murder, sex-trafficking, rape and assault against women in the United States. It has been recognized as a public health concern. Culture in the United States has led towards the trivialization of violence towards women, with media in the United States possibly contributing to making women-directed violence appear unimportant to the public.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is defined as physical and sexual violence or threat of violence, intimidation, or coercion that occurs between past or current intimate partners. Perpetrators of violence may use coercion tactics to keep the partner in the home. These tactics could include threatening harm to a family pet or threatening to take custody of children if the partner attempts to leave. IPV is a serious public health concern in the United States and one that has the potential to affect an individual’s medical readiness. Within the military community, intimate relationships may be particularly vulnerable to occupation-stress that is specific to military operations. These demands might include frequent moves to undesirable locations or overseas, separation from extended family for unknown lengths of time, frequent variability in work schedule, long hours, career uncertainty, mission ambiguity, training environments meant to simulate varying operational environments, and risk that is inherent to the field. Although there are programs in place designed to support the family unit, the stress of multiple deployments, combat exposure, and exposure to traumatic events cause additional strain on the family unit as service members reintegrate into the home environment following the return home from a deployment. Deployments bring additional stress on the family unit as two-parent homes transition to one-parent homes while attempting to maintain their semi-regular schedules.

Black maternal mortality in the United States refers to the disproportionately high rate of maternal death among those who identify as Black or African American women. Maternal death is often linked to both direct obstetric complications and indirect obstetric deaths that exacerbate pre-existing health conditions. In general, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention defines maternal mortality as a death occurring within 42 days of the end of pregnancy from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management. In the United States, around 700 women die from pregnancy-related complications per year, with Black women facing a mortality rate nearly three times more than the rate for white women.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Femicide in Latin America</span>

Femicide, broadly defined as the murder of a woman motivated by gender, is a prevalent issue in Latin America. In 2016, 14 of the top 25 nations with the highest global femicide rates were Latin American or Caribbean states. In 2021, 4,445 women were recorded victims of femicide in the region, translating to the gender-based murder of about one woman every two hours in Latin America.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Quaresma Soares, Marcela; Magalhães de Melo, Cristiane; Dias Bevilacqua, Paula (February 14, 2024). "Femicide during pregnancy and postpartum period by an intimate partner: An integrative review". Aggression and Violent Behavior. 76. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2024.101919.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Wallace, Maeve E. (September 2022). "Trends in Pregnancy-Associated Homicide, United States, 2020". American Journal of Public Health. 112 (9): 1333–1336. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2022.306937. ISSN   0090-0036. PMC   9382166 . PMID   35797500.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Campbell, Jacquelyn; Matoff-Stepp, Sabrina; Velez, Martha L.; Hunter Cox, Helen; Laughon, Kathryn (February 21, 2021). "Pregnancy-Associated Deaths from Homicide, Suicide, and Drug Overdose: Review of Research and the Intersection with Intimate Partner Violence". Journal of Women's Health. 30 (2): 236–244. doi:10.1089/jwh.2020.8875. ISSN   1540-9996. PMC   8020563 . PMID   33295844.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lawn, Rebecca B.; Koenen, Karestan C. (October 19, 2022). "Homicide is a leading cause of death for pregnant women in US". BMJ. 379: o2499. doi:10.1136/bmj.o2499. ISSN   1756-1833. PMID   36261146.
  5. 1 2 3 Wallace, Maeve; Gillispie-Bell, Veronica; Cruz, Kiara; Davis, Kelly; Vilda, Dovile (November 1, 2021). "Homicide During Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period in the United States, 2018–2019". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 138 (5): 762–769. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000004567. ISSN   0029-7844. PMC   9134264 . PMID   34619735.
  6. ↑ "Abuse during pregnancy". March of Dimes. 2024. Retrieved October 21, 2024.
  7. ↑ "Abuse During Pregnancy". Envision Counselling and Support Centre. May 5, 2016. Retrieved October 21, 2024.
  8. 1 2 3 4 European Parliament: Directorate General for External Policies of the Union; Tamsin, Bradley (2021). Preventing, protecting, providing access to justice: how can states respond to femicide?. European Parliament. doi:10.2861/978161. ISBN   978-92-846-8747-3.
  9. 1 2 "State Homicide Laws That Recognize Unborn Victims". National Right to Life. April 2, 2018. Retrieved October 21, 2024.
  10. 1 2 "Text of Unborn Victims of Violence Act". 1997. Wayback Machine. Archived from the original on January 6, 2012. Retrieved October 21, 2024.
  11. ↑ Lewis, Patricia C.; Kaslow, Nadine J.; Fai Cheong, Yuk; Evans, Dabney P.; Yount, Kathryn M. (February 28, 2024). "Femicide in the United States: a call for legal codification and national surveillance". Frontiers in Public Health. 12. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1338548 . ISSN   2296-2565. PMC   10933122 . PMID   38481840.
  12. ↑ "Femicide & Law". Canadian Femicide Observatory for Justice and Accountability. 2024. Retrieved October 21, 2024.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Buedo, Agustina (2020). "Pregnancy, Femicide, and the Indispensability of Legalizing Abortion: A Comparison Between Argentina and Ireland". Emory International Law Review. 34 (3): 825–857.
  14. 1 2 Waldrop, Theresa; Chan, Stella; Yan, Holly (December 8, 2021). "Scott Peterson sentenced to life in prison after being spared a death sentence". CNN. Retrieved November 13, 2024.
  15. ↑ "Two new documentary series focus on murder of Laci Peterson, her husband Scott's conviction - CBS San Francisco". CBS News. August 16, 2024. Retrieved November 13, 2024.
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