Breast ironing

Last updated

Breast ironing, also known as breast flattening, [1] is the pounding and massaging of a pubescent girl's breasts, using hard or heated objects, to try to make them stop developing or disappear. [2] [3] The practice is typically performed by a close female figure to the victim, traditionally fulfilled by a mother, grandmother, aunt, or female guardian who will say she is trying to protect the girl from sexual harassment and rape, [3] to prevent early pregnancy that would tarnish the family name, [4] to prevent the spread of sexually transmitted infections such as HIV/AIDS, [5] or to allow the girl to pursue education rather than be forced into early marriage. [2] [4]

Contents

It is mostly practiced in parts of Cameroon, where boys and men may think that girls whose breasts have begun to grow are ready for sex. [2] Evidence suggests that it has spread to the Cameroonian diaspora, for example to Britain, [6] where the law defines it as child abuse. [7] [8] The most widely used implement for breast ironing is a wooden pestle normally used for pounding tubers. Other tools used include leaves, [1] bananas, coconut shells, [2] grinding stones, ladles, spatulas, [4] and hammers heated over coals. [9] The ironing practice is generally performed around dusk or dawn in a private area such as the household kitchen to prevent others from seeing the victim or becoming aware of the process, particularly fathers or other male figures. [10] The massaging process could occur anywhere between one week to several months, depending on the victim's refusal and the resistance of the breasts; in cases where the breasts appear to be consistently protruding, the ironing practice may occur more than once a day for weeks or months at a time.[ citation needed ]

History

Breast ironing may be derived from the ancient practice of breast massage. [1] Breast massage aims to help even out different breast sizes and reduce the pain of nursing mothers by massaging the breast with warm objects, see Treatment for mastitis.

Incidence

The breast ironing practice has been documented in Nigeria, Togo, Republic of Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Kenya, and Zimbabwe. Additionally it has been found in other African countries, including Burkina Faso, Central African Republic (CAR), Benin, and Guinea-Conakry. [11] Breast "sweeping" has been reported in South Africa. [1] The practice has become commonly associated with Cameroon as a result of media attention and local levels of activism from human rights groups. [11] All of Cameroon's 200 ethnic groups engage in breast ironing, [12] with no known relation to religion, socio-economic status, or any other identifier. [1] A 2006 survey by the German development agency GIZ of more than 5,000 Cameroonian girls and women between the ages of 10 and 82 estimated that nearly one in four had undergone breast ironing, corresponding to four million girls. The survey also reported that it is most commonly practiced in urban areas, where mothers fear their daughters could be more exposed to sexual abuse. [3] Incidence is 53 percent in the Cameroon's southeastern region of Littoral. [9] Compared with Cameroon's Christian and animist south, breast ironing is less common in the Muslim north, where only 10 percent of women are affected. [3] Some hypothesize that this is related to the practice of early marriage, which is more common in the north, making early sexual development irrelevant or even preferable. [1] Research suggests that 16% of girls, particularly in the far North regions where child marriages are highly common, try to flatten their own breasts in an attempt to delay early sexual maturity and early marriage. [5]

A 2007 journal suggested that social norms in Cameroon result in women lacking bodily autonomy, as Cameroonian women are not socialized to negotiate safer sex practices, while Cameroonian men are encouraged to engage in polygyny and to take concubines. This lack of bodily autonomy contributes to an increased incidence of breast ironing, sexual coercion, and the normalization of early marriage practices. In an interview, one human rights activist stated that parents who resist under-aged marriages "usually point to the fact that the girlʼs breasts have not grown meaning that she is not yet ready for sexual intercourse. For parents who practice child marriage, by ironing the breasts of the prospective bride, they can continue receiving goods and services from their in-laws." [5]

A 2008 report suggested that the rise in the incidence of breast ironing is due to the earlier onset of puberty, caused by dietary improvements in Cameroon over the previous 50 years. [13] Half of Cameroonian girls who develop under the age of nine have their breasts ironed, [13] and 38% of those who develop before eleven. [3] Additionally, since 1976, the percentage of women married by the age of 19 has decreased from nearly 50% to 20%, leading to an increasingly long gap between childhood and marriage. The later age of marriage may be due to changed social norms that allow girls and women to attend school through university and to hold jobs in the formal sector; previously, girls entered married life young, wed to an older man without informed consent.[ citation needed ] Women who delay marriage in pursuit of education and career are more likely to be financially independent later in life, whereas girls who become pregnant are often forced to drop out of school and forgo formal employment. [1]

One of the only full-length reports on breast ironing dates from 2011, when a Cameroonian NGO sponsored by GIZ called it "a harmful traditional practice that has been silenced for too long". [14]

There are fears that the practice has spread to the Cameroonian diaspora, for example to Britain. [6] A charity, CAME Women and Girls Development Organisation, is working with London's Metropolitan Police Service and social services departments to raise awareness of breast ironing. [6]

Health consequences

Breast ironing is extremely painful and can cause tissue damage. As of 2006, there have been no medical studies on its effects. [2] However, medical experts warn that it might contribute toward breast cancer, cysts and depression, [4] and perhaps interfere with breastfeeding later. [15] In addition to this, breast ironing puts girls at risk of abscesses, cysts, infections, and permanent tissue damage, resulting in breast pimples, imbalance in breast size, and milk infection from scarring. In extreme cases of damage, there are currently ten cases of diagnosed breast cancer reported from women who identified as victims of breast ironing. [16] Other possible side effects reported by GIZ include malformed breasts and the eradication of one or both breasts. The practice ranges dramatically in its severity, from using heated leaves to press and massage the breasts, to using a scalding grinding stone to crush the budding gland. Due to this variation, health consequences vary from benign to acute. [1] The Child Rights Information Network (CRIN) reports the delay of breast milk development after giving birth, endangering the life of newborns. [3]

Breast ironing can cause women to fear sexual activity. Men have said that breast loss detracts from women's sexual experiences, although this has not been corroborated by women. [1]

Many women also suffer mental trauma after undergoing breast ironing. Victims feel as if it is punishment and often internalise blame, and fear breastfeeding in the future. [1]

Opposition

As well as being dangerous, breast ironing is criticised as being ineffective for stopping early sex and pregnancy. GIZ (then called "GTZ") and the Network of Aunties (RENATA), a Cameroonian non-governmental organization that supports young mothers, campaign against breast ironing, [9] and are supported by the Ministry for the Promotion of Women and the Family. [4] Some have also advocated a law against the practice; however, no such law has been passed. [1] Some consider the practice to be an emerging human rights issue, recognized as an act of gender-based violence as breast ironing affects women and girls regardless of race, class, religion, socioeconomic background, or age.[ citation needed ] In regards to recent opposition, in 2000, the United Nations (UN) identified breast ironing as one of five intersecting forms of discrimination and overlooked crimes against women. [17]

According to one Cameroonian lawyer, if a medical doctor determines that damage has been caused to the breasts, the perpetrator can be punished by up to three years in prison, provided the matter is reported within a few months. [2] However, it is unclear if such a law exists as there are no recorded instances of legal enforcement. [1]

The GIZ survey found that in 2006, 39 percent of Cameroonian women opposed breast ironing, with 41 percent expressing support and 26 percent indifferent. [3] Reuters reported in 2014 that nationwide campaigning against the practice had helped reduce the rate of breast ironing by 50 percent in the country. [18]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cameroon</span> Country in Central Africa

Cameroon, officially the Republic of Cameroon, is a country in Central Africa. It shares boundaries with Nigeria to the west and north, Chad to the northeast, the Central African Republic to the east, and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo to the south. Its coastline lies on the Bight of Biafra, part of the Gulf of Guinea, and the Atlantic Ocean. Due to its strategic position at the crossroads between West Africa and Central Africa, it has been categorized as being in both camps. Cameroon's population of nearly 31 million people speak 250 native languages, in addition to the national tongues of English and French, or both. Early inhabitants of the territory included the Sao civilisation around Lake Chad and the Baka hunter-gatherers in the southeastern rainforest. Portuguese explorers reached the coast in the 15th century and named the area Rio dos Camarões, which became Cameroon in English. Fulani soldiers founded the Adamawa Emirate in the north in the 19th century, and various ethnic groups of the west and northwest established powerful chiefdoms and fondoms.

Menarche is the first menstrual cycle, or first menstrual bleeding, in female humans. From both social and medical perspectives, it is often considered the central event of female puberty, as it signals the possibility of fertility. Girls experience menarche at different ages. Having menarche occur between the ages of 9–14 in the West is considered normal.

Preadolescence is a stage of human development following middle childhood and preceding adolescence. It commonly ends with the beginning of puberty. Preadolescence is commonly defined as ages 9–12 ending with the major onset of puberty. It may also be defined as simply the 2-year period before the major onset of puberty. Preadolescence can bring its own challenges and anxieties.

Child marriage is a marriage or domestic partnership, formal or informal, usually between a child and an adult, but can also be between a child and another child.

In medicine, precocious puberty is puberty occurring at an unusually early age. In most cases, the process is normal in every aspect except the unusually early age and simply represents a variation of normal development. There is early development of secondary sex characters and gametogenesis also starts earlier. Precocious puberty is of two types: true precocious puberty and pseudoprecocious puberty. In a minority of children with precocious puberty, the early development is triggered by a disease such as a tumor or injury of the brain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thelarche</span> Beginning of development of the breasts in the female

Thelarche, also known as breast budding, is the onset of secondary breast development, often representing the beginning of pubertal development. It is the stage at which male and female breasts differentiate due to variance in hormone levels; however, some males have a condition in which they develop breasts, termed gynecomastia. Thelarche typically occurs between the ages of 8 and 13 years with significant variation between individuals. However, the initial growth of breast tissue occurs during fetal development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prostitution in Thailand</span>

Prostitution in Thailand is not itself illegal, but public solicitation for prostitution is prohibited if it is carried out "openly and shamelessly" or "causes nuisance to the public". Due to police corruption and an economic reliance on prostitution dating back to the Vietnam War, it remains a significant presence in the country. It results from poverty, low levels of education and a lack of employment in rural areas. Prostitutes mostly come from the northeastern (Isan) region of Thailand, from ethnic minorities or from neighbouring countries, especially Cambodia, Myanmar, and Laos. In 2019, the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) estimated the total population of sex workers in Thailand to be 43,000.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Education in Cameroon</span>

Cameroon is a Central African nation on the Gulf of Guinea. Bantu speakers were among the first groups to settle Cameroon, followed by the Muslim Fulani until German domination in 1884. After World War I, the French took over 80% of the area, and the British 20%. After World War II, self-government was granted, and in 1972, a unitary republic was formed out of East and West Cameroon. Until 1976 there were two separate education systems, French and English, which did not merge seamlessly. English and French are now considered the primary languages of instruction with English being more preferred. Local languages are generally not taught as there are too many, and choosing between them would raise further issues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Girl</span> Young female human

A girl is a young female human, usually a child or an adolescent. While the term girl has other meanings, including young woman, daughter or girlfriend regardless of age, the first meaning is the most common one.

Xenoestrogens are a type of xenohormone that imitates estrogen. They can be either synthetic or natural chemical compounds. Synthetic xenoestrogens include some widely used industrial compounds, such as PCBs, BPA, and phthalates, which have estrogenic effects on a living organism even though they differ chemically from the estrogenic substances produced internally by the endocrine system of any organism. Natural xenoestrogens include phytoestrogens which are plant-derived xenoestrogens. Because the primary route of exposure to these compounds is by consumption of phytoestrogenic plants, they are sometimes called "dietary estrogens". Mycoestrogens, estrogenic substances from fungi, are another type of xenoestrogen that are also considered mycotoxins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Violence against women</span> Violent acts against women and girls

Violence against women (VAW), also known as gender-based violence and sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), is violent acts primarily committed by men or boys against women or girls. Such violence is often considered a form of hate crime, committed against persons specifically because they are of the female gender, and can take many forms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breast binding</span> Flattening breasts with undergarments

Breast binding, also known as chest binding, is the flattening and hiding of breasts with constrictive materials such as cloth strips or purpose-built undergarments. Binders may also be used as alternatives to bras or for reasons of propriety.

Erotic lactation is sexual arousal by sucking on a female or male breast. Depending on the context, the practice can also be referred to as adult suckling, adult nursing, and adult breastfeeding. Practitioners sometimes refer to themselves as being in an adult nursing relationship (ANR). Two persons in an exclusive relationship can be called a nursing couple.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Ghana</span>

The status of women in Ghana and their roles in Ghanaian society has changed over the past few decades. There has been a slow increase in the political participation of Ghanaian women throughout history. Women are given equal rights under the Constitution of Ghana, yet disparities in education, employment, and health for women remain prevalent. Additionally, women have much less access to resources than men in Ghana do. Ghanaian women in rural and urban areas face slightly different challenges. Throughout Ghana, female-headed households are increasing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Ethiopia</span>

There have been several studies concerning women in Ethiopia. Historically, elite and powerful women in Ethiopia have been visible as administrators and warriors. This never translated into any benefit to improve the rights of women, but it had meant that women could inherit and own property and act as advisors on important communal and tribal matters. As late as the first part of the 20th century, Queen Menen, consort of Emperor Haile Selassie I, had a decisive role in running the Ethiopian Empire. Workit and Mestayit regents to their minor sons have been held responsible for their provinces. They owed their rights to landed property because of a special type of land tenure that expected tenants to serve as militia to overlords, irrespective of gender. In 1896, Empress Tayetu Betul, wife of Emperor Menelik II, actively advised the government and participated in defending the country from Italian invasion. Prominent and other landowning women fought against the second invasion in 1935–41. With the assistance of European advisors, women in the ensuing period were kept out of the army and politics, even as advisors. Instead, they were restricted to family and household work of raising children and cooking. With a steady increase in female representation in education, they have started to undertake nursing, teaching, and other similarly supportive roles. Over the 2018–2019 period, their gradual participation in state politics has been increasing at a steady pace.

Prostitution in Cameroon is illegal but tolerated, especially in urban and tourist areas. In the capital, Yaoundé the main area of prostitution is the neighbourhood of Mini Ferme. UNAIDS estimate there are 112,000 sex workers in the country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Estimates of sexual violence</span>

Estimates of sexual violence are surveys of victims of sexual violence crime that have been undertaken to estimate the prevalence of sexual violence. The prevalence of sexual violence differs from the reported sexual violence statistics according to the law enforcement agencies due to the dark figure of crime and under-reporting of crime. The surveys use a common methodology to aid comparability.

Puberty is the process of physical changes through which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction. It is initiated by hormonal signals from the brain to the gonads: the ovaries in a female, the testicles in a male. In response to the signals, the gonads produce hormones that stimulate libido and the growth, function, and transformation of the brain, bones, muscle, blood, skin, hair, breasts, and sex organs. Physical growth—height and weight—accelerates in the first half of puberty and is completed when an adult body has been developed. Before puberty, the external sex organs, known as primary sexual characteristics, are sex characteristics that distinguish males and females. Puberty leads to sexual dimorphism through the development of the secondary sex characteristics, which further distinguish the sexes.

Gender inequality in Nepal refers to disparities and inequalities between men and women in Nepal, a landlocked country in South Asia. Gender inequality is defined as unequal treatment and opportunities due to perceived differences based solely on issues of gender. Gender inequality is a major barrier for human development worldwide as gender is a determinant for the basis of discrimination in various spheres such as health, education, political representation, and labor markets. Although Nepal is modernizing and gender roles are changing, the traditionally patriarchal society creates systematic barriers to gender equality.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Rebecca Tapscott (14 May 2012). "Understanding Breast "Ironing": A Study of the Methods, Motivations, and Outcomes of Breast Flattening Practices in Cameroon" (PDF). Feinstein International Center (Tufts University). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 24 March 2014.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Randy Joe Sa'ah (23 June 2006). "Cameroon girls battle 'breast ironing'". BBC News . Retrieved 2008-01-02.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ruth Gidley and Megan Rowling (7 July 2006). "Millions of Cameroon girls suffer "breast ironing"". AlertNet, Reuters. Archived from the original on May 21, 2010. Reproduced at the Child Rights Information Network. Retrieved 2011-04-02.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Sylvestre Tetchiada (13 June 2006). "An Unwelcome 'Gift of God'". IPS News . Retrieved 2008-01-02.
  5. 1 2 3 Vitalis Pemunta, Ngambouk (2016-11-30). "The Social Context of Breast Ironing in Cameroon". Athens Journal of Health. 3 (4): 335–360. doi: 10.30958/ajh.3-4-5 . ISSN   2241-8229.
  6. 1 2 3 Dugan, Emily (26 September 2013). "'Breast ironing': Girls 'have chests flattened out' to disguise the onset of puberty". Independent. London. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
  7. ↑ Lazareva, Inna (26 January 2019). "Revealed: 'dozens' of girls subjected to breast-ironing in UK". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 February 2019.
  8. ↑ Lazareva, Inna (13 February 2019). "Breast-ironing: UK government vows to tackle abusive practice". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 February 2019.
  9. 1 2 3 "Campaign launched to counter "breast ironing"". PlusNews. 28 June 2006. Archived from the original on 2012-02-13.
  10. ↑ Njume, Nkwelle Norbert Nicholas (2019). The Long-Term Health-Related Outcomes of Breast Ironing in Cameroon - ProQuest (Doctor of Philosophy in Public Health thesis). Walden University. ProQuest   2248747035.
  11. 1 2 Hussain M, Nzouankeu A (2013). "In Cameroon, women "iron" daughters' breasts to ward off men". Thomas Reuters Foundation.
  12. ↑ Nkepile Mabuse (July 27, 2011). "Breast ironing tradition targeted in Cameroon". CNN. Archived from the original on January 18, 2012. Retrieved 2012-02-17.
  13. 1 2 "Breast Ironing". Current TV. 26 February 2008. Archived from the original on April 10, 2008. Retrieved 2011-04-02.
  14. ↑ Rosaline Ngunshi Bawe (August 2011). "Breast Ironing... A harmful practice that has been silenced for too long" (PDF). Gender Empowerment and Development. Retrieved 14 February 2019.
  15. ↑ Irving Epstein; Leslie Limage (2008). The Greenwood encyclopedia of children's issues worldwide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 84. ISBN   978-0-313-33616-4 . Retrieved 2012-02-17.
  16. ↑ Vitalis Pemunta, Ngambouk (2016-11-30). "The Social Context of Breast Ironing in Cameroon". Athens Journal of Health. 3 (4): 335–360. doi: 10.30958/ajh.3-4-5 . ISSN   2241-8229.
  17. ↑ Vitalis Pemunta, Ngambouk (2016-11-30). "The Social Context of Breast Ironing in Cameroon". Athens Journal of Health. 3 (4): 335–360. doi: 10.30958/ajh.3-4-5 . ISSN   2241-8229.
  18. ↑ Penney, Joe. "Breast ironing". Reuters | The Wider Image. Retrieved 2020-09-03.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.