Mastitis

Last updated
Mastitis
Other namesmammitis; garget
Atlas of clinical surgery; with special reference to diagnosis and treatment for practitioners and students (1908) (14768289625).jpg
A drawing of mastitis from the early 1900s
Pronunciation
Specialty Gynecology
Symptoms Localized breast pain and redness, fever [1]
Complications Abscess [2]
Usual onsetRapid [1]
Diagnostic method Based on symptoms [2]
Differential diagnosis Plugged milk duct, [3] breast engorgement, [4] breast cancer (rare) [1]
PreventionFrequent breastfeeding with good technique [2]
Treatment Antibiotics (cephalexin), ibuprofen [2] [1]
Frequency10% of breastfeeding women [2]

Mastitis is inflammation of the breast or udder, usually associated with breastfeeding. [1] [5] [6] Symptoms typically include local pain and redness. [1] There is often an associated fever and general soreness. [1] Onset is typically fairly rapid and usually occurs within the first few months of delivery. [1] Complications can include abscess formation. [2]

Contents

Risk factors include poor latch, cracked nipples, use of a breast pump, and weaning. [1] The bacteria most commonly involved are Staphylococcus and Streptococci . [1] Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms. [2] Ultrasound may be useful for detecting a potential abscess. [1]

Prevention of this breastfeeding difficulty is by proper breastfeeding techniques. [2] When infection is present, antibiotics such as cephalexin may be recommended. [2] Breastfeeding should typically be continued, as emptying the breast is important for healing. [2] [1] Tentative evidence supports benefits from probiotics. [1] About 10% of breastfeeding women are affected. [2]

Types

When it occurs in breastfeeding mothers, it is known as puerperal mastitis, lactation mastitis, or lactational mastitis. When it occurs in non breastfeeding women it is known as non-puerperal or non-lactational mastitis. Mastitis can, in rare cases, occur in men. Inflammatory breast cancer has symptoms very similar to mastitis and must be ruled out.

The symptoms are similar for puerperal and nonpuerperal mastitis but predisposing factors and treatment can be very different.

An ultrasound image of puerperal mastitis Ultrasound Scan ND 115254 1204420 cr.png
An ultrasound image of puerperal mastitis

Puerperal mastitis is the inflammation of the breast in connection with pregnancy, breastfeeding or weaning. Since one of the most prominent symptoms is tension and engorgement of the breast, it is thought to be caused by blocked milk ducts or milk excess. It is relatively common; estimates range depending on methodology between 5–33%. However, only about 0.4–0.5% of breastfeeding mothers develop an abscess. [7]

Some predisposing factors are known but their predictive value is minimal. It appears that proper breastfeeding technique, frequent breastfeeding and avoidance of stress are the most important factors that can be influenced.

Light cases of mastitis are often called breast engorgement; the distinction is overlapping and possibly arbitrary or subject to regional variations.

The term nonpuerperal mastitis describes inflammatory lesions of the breast occurring unrelated to pregnancy and breastfeeding. This article includes description of mastitis as well as various kinds of mammary abscesses. Skin related conditions like dermatitis and foliculitis are a separate entity.

Names for non-puerperal mastitis are not used very consistently and include mastitis, subareolar abscess, duct ectasia, periductal inflammation, Zuska's disease and others.

Periductal mastitis is a form of nonlactational mastitis, and is characterized by inflammation of the subareolar ducts. Although the cause of periductal mastitis is currently unknown, it is predicted that smoking may be related. This condition is mainly seen in young women but can also be seen in men. [8]

Signs and symptoms

Mastitis localized on the underside of the breast, with a large area of inflammation. Mastitis in breast.jpg
Mastitis localized on the underside of the breast, with a large area of inflammation.

Lactation mastitis usually affects only one breast and the symptoms can develop quickly. [9] It develops into three stages, from the initial stage, the pus formation stage, to the restoration stage. [10] The signs and symptoms usually appear suddenly and they include:

Some women may also experience flu-like symptoms such as:

Contact should be made with a health care provider with special breastfeeding competence as soon as the patient recognizes the combination of signs and symptoms. Most of the women first experience the flu-like symptoms and just after they may notice a sore red area on the breast. Also, women should seek medical care if they notice any abnormal discharge from the nipples, if breast pain is making it difficult to function each day, or they have prolonged, unexplained breast pain.[ citation needed ]

Breast abscess

Breast with visible infection and inflammation, right before a surgical intervention for breast abscess. Pecho enrojecido.jpg
Breast with visible infection and inflammation, right before a surgical intervention for breast abscess.
Breast right after surgical intervention for breast abscess. Mama con drenaje.jpg
Breast right after surgical intervention for breast abscess.

A breast abscess is a collection of pus that develops in the breast with various causes. [13] During lactation, breast abscess develops only rarely, most sources cite about 0.4–0.5% of breastfeeding women. [7] Known risk factors are age over 30, primiparous and late delivery. No correlation was found with smoking status; however, this may be in part because far fewer smoking women choose to breastfeed. [14] Antibiotics were not shown effective in prevention of lactation abscess but are useful to treat a secondary infection (see the section on the treatment of breast abscess in this article).

Keratinizing squamous metaplasia of lactiferous ducts may play a similar[ clarification needed ] role in the pathogenesis of nonpuerperal subareolar abscess.

Causes

Since the 1980s mastitis has often been divided into non-infectious and infectious sub-groups. However, recent research [15] suggests that it may not be feasible to make divisions in this way. It has been shown that types and amounts of potentially pathogenic bacteria in breast milk are not correlated to the severity of symptoms. Moreover, although only 15% of women with mastitis in Kvist et al.'s study were given antibiotics, all recovered and few had recurring symptoms. Many healthy breastfeeding women wishing to donate breast milk have potentially pathogenic bacteria in their milk but have no symptoms of mastitis.[ citation needed ]

Risk factors

Mastitis typically develops when the milk is not properly removed from the breast. Milk stasis can lead to the milk ducts in the breasts becoming blocked, as the breast milk is not being properly and regularly expressed. [16] It has also been suggested that blocked milk ducts can occur as a result of pressure on the breast, such as tight-fitting clothing or an over-restrictive bra, although there is sparse evidence for this supposition. Mastitis may occur when the baby is not appropriately attached to the breast while feeding, when the baby has infrequent feeds or has problems suckling the milk out of the breast.

The presence of cracks or sores on the nipples increases the likelihood of infection. Tight clothing or ill-fitting bras may also cause problems as they compress the breasts. There is a possibility that infants carrying infectious pathogens in their noses can infect their mothers; [17] the clinical significance of this finding is still unknown.

Mastitis can also develop due to contamination of a breast implant or any other foreign body, for example after nipple piercing. In such cases, the removal of the foreign body is indicated. [18]

Women who are breastfeeding are at risk for developing mastitis especially if they have sore or cracked nipples or have had mastitis before while breastfeeding another baby. Also, the chances of getting mastitis increases if women use only one position to breastfeed or wear a tight-fitting bra, which may restrict milk flow [19] Difficulties in getting a nursing infant to latch on to the breast can also increase the risk for mastitis. [20]

Women with diabetes, chronic illness, AIDS, or an impaired immune system may be more susceptible to the development of mastitis. [21]

Infection

Some women (approximately 15%) [15] will require antibiotic treatment for infection which is usually caused by bacteria from the skin or the baby's mouth entering the milk ducts through skin lesions of the nipple or through the opening of the nipple. [22] Infection is usually caused by Staphylococcus aureus . [23] Infectious pathogens commonly associated with mastitis are Staphylococcus aureus , Streptococcus spp. and Gram-negative bacilli such as Escherichia coli . Salmonella spp., mycobacteria, and fungi such as Candida and Cryptococcus have been identified in rare instances. [7]

Recent research suggests that infectious pathogens play a much smaller role in the pathogenesis than was commonly assumed only a few years ago. Most detected pathogens are very common species that are natural part of the breast fauna and simple detection of their presence is not sufficient to prove a causative role. Furthermore, there are indications that treatment with antibiotics may have minimal impact, [24] [25] and over-all there is insufficient evidence to confirm or refute the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy for treating lactational mastitis. [26]

Diagnosis

The diagnosis of mastitis and breast abscess can usually be made based on a physical examination. [23] The doctor will also take into account the signs and symptoms of the condition.

However, if the doctor is not sure whether the mass is an abscess or a tumor, a breast ultrasound may be performed. The ultrasound provides a clear image of the breast tissue and may be helpful in distinguishing between simple mastitis and abscess or in diagnosing an abscess deep in the breast. The test consists of placing an ultrasound probe over the breast.

In cases of infectious mastitis, cultures may be needed in order to determine what type of organism is causing the infection. Cultures are helpful in deciding the specific type of antibiotics that will be used in curing the disease. These cultures may be taken either from the breast milk or of the material aspirated from an abscess.

Mammograms or breast biopsies are normally performed on women who do not respond to treatment or on non-breastfeeding women. This type of tests is sometimes ordered to exclude the possibility of a rare type of breast cancer which causes symptoms similar to those of mastitis.

Differential diagnosis

Perinatal mood and anxiety disorders

Some women who experience pain or other symptoms when breastfeeding, but who have no detectable signs of mastitis, may have a sensory processing disorder, postpartum depression, perinatal anxiety, dysphoric milk ejection reflex, an involuntary aversion to breastfeeding, or other mental health problems. [27]

Breast cancer

Breast cancer may coincide with or mimic symptoms of mastitis. Only full resolution of symptoms and careful examination are sufficient to exclude the diagnosis of breast cancer.

The lifetime risk for breast cancer is significantly reduced for women who were pregnant and breastfeeding. Mastitis episodes do not appear to influence lifetime risk of breast cancer.[ citation needed ]

Mastitis does however cause great difficulties in diagnosis of breast cancer. Breast cancer may coincide with mastitis or develop shortly afterwards. All suspicious symptoms that do not completely disappear within 5 weeks must be investigated.[ citation needed ]

Breast cancer incidence during pregnancy and lactation is assumed to be the same as in controls. Course and prognosis are also very similar to age matched controls. [28] [29] However diagnosis during lactation is particularly problematic, often leading to delayed diagnosis and treatment.

Some data suggest that noninflammatory breast cancer incidence is increased within a year following episodes of nonpuerperal mastitis and special care is required for follow-up cancer prevention screening. [30] So far only data from short term observation is available and total risk increase can not be judged. Because of the very short time between presentation of mastitis and breast cancer in this study it is considered very unlikely that the inflammation had any substantial role in carcinogenesis, rather it would appear that some precancerous lesions may increase the risk of inflammation (hyperplasia causing duct obstruction, hypersensitivity to cytokines or hormones) or the lesions may have common predisposing factors.

A very serious type of breast cancer called inflammatory breast cancer presents with similar symptoms as mastitis (both puerperal and nonpuerperal). It is the most aggressive type of breast cancer with the highest mortality rate. The inflammatory phenotype of IBC is thought to be mostly caused by invasion and blocking of dermal lymphatics, however it was recently shown that NF-κB target genes activation may significantly contribute to the inflammatory phenotype. Case reports show that inflammatory breast cancer symptoms can flare up following injury or inflammation making it even more likely to be mistaken for mastitis. Symptoms are also known to partially respond to progesterone and antibiotics, reaction to other common medications can not be ruled out at this point. [31] [32] [33] [34] [35]

Treatment

Lactational mastitis

When mastitis is associated with breastfeeding, the treatment has to balance short-term reduction of symptoms with solving the underlying problems that caused mastitis. For example, the Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine recommends against trying to "empty" the breasts, whether through pushing the baby to feed more or through using a breast pump. [27] It may reduce the feeling of being full or swollen in the short term, at the cost of triggering milk oversupply, which can cause a mastitis recurrence in the coming days and weeks. [27]

Self-care

For breastfeeding women with breast engorgement or light mastitis, using a warm compress may be comfortable. [27] However, by increasing blood flow to the area, warm compresses make the symptoms worse for other women. [27] A cool compresses can reduce edema (swelling) and pain. [27] In traditional folk medicine, the breast was sometimes cooled by placing a cabbage leaf on the breast, but this is now more commonly done with an ice pack or a wet washcloth. [27]

Gentle massage ("like petting a cat" [27] ) may be comfortable and may reduce swelling. [27] However, more aggressive rubbing can easily damage breast tissues that are already strained by mastitis, and that damage can increase swelling and pain. [27] Excessive massage, like excessive use of a breast pump, may be a risk factor for recurrent mastitis. [27]

Probiotics may or may not help, but they are believed not to be harmful. [27] Over-the-counter nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as ibuprofen and paracetamol, may reduce inflammation. [27]

Medical treatments

Antibiotics are appropriate only for bacterial mastitis, which may develop if non-infective mastitis does not improve. [27] Antifungals are similarly only useful when a fungal infection, such as thrush, is present. [27] Severe infections may require ordinary medical supportive care, such as intravenous fluids if the mother is unable to drink enough water or other fluids. [27]

Therapeutic ultrasound may reduce swelling. [27]

Ineffective and harmful treatments

The shape of swelling in a specific spot may make people suppose that the breasts contain simple tubes, and that one has become plugged. However, milk ducts are not simple tubes, and their interconnected anatomy makes it impossible for them to actually become plugged. [27] Consequently, treatment does not include cutting, popping, or squeezing any so-called "plugged" ducts. [27] There is no "plug" (e.g., of dried-out milk) to be removed. [27] These localized swellings are usually caused by lymphatic congestion (non-milk body fluid accumulating in the breasts), alveolar edema (swelling in the part of the breast that produces milk), or mammary dysbiosis (changes to the breast's microbiome), which can cause some narrowing, but not plugging, at the microscopic level. [27] Breastfeeding at a normal level may provide temporary relief from the swelling without triggering milk oversupply. [27] It is safer to treat nipple blebs (very small, usually pale colored, bumps of tissue on the end of the nipple) with topical steroids than by cutting the skin. [27]

Any action that breaks the skin can cause an infection, which increases inflammation and may become serious. [27]

Antibiotics do not prevent mastitis from recurring. [27] [36]

Nonpuerperal mastitis

Nonpuerperal mastitis is treated by medication and possibly aspiration or drainage (see in particular treatment of subareolar abscess and treatment of granulomatous mastitis). According to a BMJ best practice report, antibiotics are generally to be used in all mastitis cases unrelated to breastfeeding, with replacement of the antibiotics by an antifungal agent such as fluconazole in cases of deep fungal infections, and corticosteroids are to be used in case of granulomatous mastitis (with differential diagnosis to tuberculosis infection of the breast). [18]

In idiopathic granulomatous mastitis, successful treatment includes invasive surgical procedures or less invasive treatment with steroid medications. [37]

Antibiotics for bacterial mastitis

In lactational mastitis, antibiotics are not needed in the overwhelming majority of cases and should be used only for bacterial infections. [24] For people with non-severe infections, dicloxacillin or cephalexin are recommended. [38] For people with severe infections, vancomycin is recommended. [39] The length of antibiotic treatment ranges anywhere from 5–14 days. [40] The effects of antibiotics has not been well studied as of 2013. [41]

A lactational phlegmon (area of inflammation) should be monitored for possible development into an abscess (walled-off area filled with pus from an infection). [27]

Breast abscess

An abscess (or suspected abscess) in the breast may be treated by ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration (percutaneous aspiration) or by surgical incision and drainage; each of these approaches is performed under antibiotic coverage. In case of puerperal breast abscess, breastfeeding from the affected breast should be continued where possible. [24] [42]

For small breast abscesses, ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration such as to completely drain the abscess is widely recognized as a preferred initial management. [43]

One recommended treatment includes antibiotics, ultrasound evaluation and, if fluid is present, ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration of the abscess with an 18 gauge needle, under saline lavage until clear. [44] The exudate is then sent for microbiological analysis for identification of the pathogen and determination of its antibiotic sensitivity profile, [45] which may in turn give an indication for changing the antibiotics. At follow-up, a mammography is performed if the condition has resolved; otherwise the ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration with lavage and microbiological analysis is repeated. [46] If three to five aspirations still do not resolve the condition, percutaneous drainage in combination with placement of an indwelling catheter is indicated, and only if several attempts at ultrasound-guided drainage fail, surgical resection of the inflamed lactiferous ducts (preferably performed after the acute episode is over). [47] It is noted, however, that even the excision of the affected ducts does not necessarily prevent recurrence. [47]

Nonpuerperal breast abscesses have a higher rate of recurrence compared to puerperal breast abscesses. [48] There is a high statistical correlation of nonpuerperal breast abscess with diabetes mellitus (DM). On this basis, it has recently been suggested that diabetes screening should be performed on patients with such abscess. [49] [50]

Although there are a number of recommendations regarding the treatment of breast abscesses, a 2015 review found insufficient evidence of whether needle aspiration is comparable to incision and drainage, or whether antibiotics should generally be given to women undergoing incision and drainage. [51]

Prevention

Most efforts to prevent mastitis in breastfeeding women are believed to be ineffective or have a relatively small effect. [36] Acupoint massage probably reduces the risk somewhat. [36] Possibly effective prevention measures include taking probiotics, breast massage, and low-frequency pulse treatment. [36] Ineffective methods included prophylactic antibiotics, topical treatments (mastitis is inflammation deep in the breast, so treating the skin is irrelevant [27] ), specialist breastfeeding education, and anti‐secretory factor‐inducing cereal. [36]

Prognosis

Neither the presence of a fever nor the severity of symptoms at presentation do not predict outcome; women with sore or damaged nipples may need special attention. [52] [53]

Epidemiology

Mastitis is quite common among breastfeeding women. The WHO estimates that although incidences vary between 2.6% and 33%, the prevalence globally is approximately 10% of breastfeeding women. Most mothers who develop mastitis usually do so within the first few weeks after delivery. Most breast infections occur within the first or second month after delivery or at the time of weaning. [21] However, in rare cases it affects women who are not breastfeeding. [54]

Terminology

Popular usage of the term mastitis varies by geographic region. Outside the US, it is commonly used for both puerperal (that is, occurring to breastfeeding mothers) and nonpuerperal (unrelated to breastfeeding) cases. In the US, mastitis usually refers to puerperal mastitis with fever or other symptoms of systemic infection (these symptoms are not necessarily caused by an actual infection [27] ). Lighter cases of puerperal mastitis, appearing a few days after birth, are often called breast engorgement. [27] In the US, the term nonpuerperal mastitis is rarely used, and alternative names such as duct ectasia, subareolar abscess and plasma cell mastitis are more frequently used.

In this article, mastitis is used in the original sense of the definition as inflammation of the breast, with additional qualifiers where appropriate.

Chronic cystic mastitis is an older name for fibrocystic breast changes.

Etymology and pronunciation

The word mastitis ( /mæstˈaɪtɪs/ ) uses combining forms of mast- + -itis . The word mammitis ( /mæmˈaɪtɪs/ ) uses combining forms of mamm- + -itis . They are synonymous in modern usage, and mastitis is the more commonly used synonym.

Other animals

Mastitis occurs in other animals as in humans, and is especially a concern in livestock, since milk from the affected udders of livestock may enter the food supply and pose a health risk.

It is a major condition in some species, like dairy cows. It is the cause of much unwanted suffering for the dairy cows. It is of tremendous economic importance for the dairy industry, and it is also of concern for public health. The same considerations apply to mastitis in sheep and goats and other milk-producing females. It is also of economic importance in the sow, but, in this species, it is not related to public health. In other domestic females (queen, mare, etc.), it is more an individual illness dealt with by veterinary practitioners.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nipple</span> Part of the breast

The nipple is a raised region of tissue on the surface of the breast from which, in females, milk leaves the breast through the lactiferous ducts to breastfeed an infant. The milk can flow through the nipple passively or it can be ejected by smooth muscle contractions that occur along with the ductal system. Male mammals also have nipples but without the same level of function, and often surrounded by body hair.

Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is one of the most aggressive types of breast cancer. It can occur in women of any age. It is referred to as "inflammatory" due to its frequent presentation with symptoms resembling a skin inflammation, such as erysipelas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breast engorgement</span> Medical condition

Breast engorgement occurs in the mammary glands due to expansion and pressure exerted by the synthesis and storage of breast milk. It is also a main factor in altering the ability of the infant to latch-on. Engorgement changes the shape and curvature of the nipple region by making the breast inflexible, flat, hard, and swollen. The nipples on an engorged breast are flat or inverted. Sometimes it may lead to striae on nipples, mainly a preceding symptom of septation mastitis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nipple discharge</span> Medical condition

Nipple discharge is fluid from the nipple, with or without squeezing the breast. The discharge can be milky, clear, green, purulent, bloody, or faintly yellow. The consistency can be thick, thin, sticky, or watery.

Breast pain is the symptom of discomfort in either one or both breasts. Pain in both breasts is often described as breast tenderness, is usually associated with the menstrual period and is not serious. Pain that involves only one part of a breast is more concerning, particularly if a hard mass or nipple discharge is also present.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inverted nipple</span> Medical condition

An inverted nipple is a condition where the nipple, instead of pointing outward, is retracted into the breast. In some cases, the nipple will be temporarily protruded if stimulated. Both women and men can have inverted nipples.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lactiferous duct</span> Structure carrying milk to the nipple

Lactiferous ducts are ducts that converge and form a branched system connecting the nipple to the lobules of the mammary gland. When lactogenesis occurs, under the influence of hormones, the milk is moved to the nipple by the action of smooth muscle contractions along the ductal system to the tip of the nipple. They are also referred to as galactophores, galactophorous ducts, mammary ducts, mamillary ducts or milk ducts.

Breast diseases make up a number of conditions. The most common symptoms are a breast mass, breast pain, and nipple discharge.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breastfeeding difficulties</span> Medical condition

Breastfeeding difficulties refers to problems that arise from breastfeeding, the feeding of an infant or young child with milk from a woman's breasts. Although babies have a sucking reflex that enables them to suck and swallow milk, and human breast milk is usually the best source of nourishment for human infants, there are circumstances under which breastfeeding can be problematic, or even in rare instances, contraindicated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Duct ectasia of breast</span> Medical condition

Duct ectasia of the breast, mammary duct ectasia or plasma cell mastitis is a condition that occurs when a milk duct beneath the nipple widens, the duct walls thicken, and the duct fills with fluid. This is the most common cause of greenish discharge. Mammary duct ectasia can mimic breast cancer. It is a disorder of peri- or post-menopausal age.

Lactation suppression refers to the act of suppressing lactation by medication or other non pharmaceutical means. The breasts may become painful when engorged with milk if breastfeeding is ceased abruptly, or if never started. This may occur if a woman never initiates breastfeeding, or if she is weaning from breastfeeding abruptly. Historically women who did not plan to breastfeed were given diethylstilbestrol and other medications after birth to suppress lactation. However, its use was discontinued, and there are no medications currently approved for lactation suppression in the US and the UK. Dopamine agonists are routinely prescribed to women following a stillbirth in the UK under the NHS.

The term nonpuerperal mastitis describes inflammatory lesions of the breast (mastitis) that occur unrelated to pregnancy and breastfeeding.

Also called Zuska's disease, subareolar abscess is a subcutaneous abscess of the breast tissue beneath the areola of the nipple. It is a frequently aseptic inflammation and has been associated with squamous metaplasia of lactiferous ducts.

Granulomatous mastitis can be divided into idiopathic granulomatous mastitis and granulomatous mastitis occurring as a rare secondary complication of a great variety of other conditions such as tuberculosis and other infections, sarcoidosis and granulomatosis with polyangiitis. Special forms of granulomatous mastitis occur as complication of diabetes. Some cases are due to silicone injection or other foreign body reactions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breast mass</span> Localized swellings that feel different from the surrounding tissue

A breast mass, also known as a breast lump, is a localized swelling that feels different from the surrounding tissue. Breast pain, nipple discharge, or skin changes may be present. Concerning findings include masses that are hard, do not move easily, are of an irregular shape, or are firmly attached to surrounding tissue.

Microdochectomy is the surgical removal (excision) of a lactiferous duct. A mere incision of a mammary duct is called microdochotomy.

Central duct excision is the surgical removal (excision) of all lactiferous duct under the nipple. The excision of a single duct is called microdochectomy, a mere incision of a mammary duct is microdochotomy.

A blocked milk duct is a blockage of one or more ducts carrying milk to the nipple for the purpose of breastfeeding an infant that can cause mastitis. The symptoms are a tender, localised lump in one breast, with redness in the skin over the lump. The cause of a blocked milk duct is the failure to remove milk from part of the breast. This may be due to infrequent breastfeeding, poor attachment, tight clothing or trauma to the breast. Sometimes the duct to one part of the breast is blocked by thickened milk. A blocked milk duct can be managed by improving the removal of milk and correcting the underlying cause.

Nipple pain is a common symptom of pain at the nipple that occurs in women during breastfeeding after childbirth. The pain shows the highest intensity during the third to the seventh day postpartum and becomes most severe on the third day postpartum.

Breastmilk medicine refers to the non-nutritional usage of human breast milk (HBM) as a medicine or therapy to cure diseases. Breastmilk is perceived as an important food that provides essential nutrition to infants. It also provides protection in terms of immunity by direct transfer of antibodies from mothers to infants. The immunity developed via this mean protects infants from diseases such as respiratory diseases, middle ear infections, and gastrointestinal diseases. HBM can also produce lifelong positive therapeutic effects on a number of chronic diseases, including diabetes mellitus, obesity, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, autoimmunity, and asthma.

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  55. ↑ Kandasamy S, Green BB, Benjamin AL, Kerr DE (Dec 2011). "Between-cow variation in dermal fibroblast response to lipopolysaccharide reflected in resolution of inflammation during Escherichia coli mastitis". J. Dairy Sci. 94 (12): 5963–75. doi:10.3168/jds.2011-4288. PMID   22118085.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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