Postpartum period

Last updated
Mother with newborn baby Mother and newborn child in Orissa.jpg
Mother with newborn baby

The postpartum (or postnatal) period begins after childbirth and is typically considered to last for six weeks. [1] There are three distinct phases of the postnatal period; the acute phase, lasting for six to twelve hours after birth; the subacute phase, lasting six weeks; and the delayed phase, lasting up to six months. During the delayed phase, some changes to the genitourinary system take much longer to resolve and may result in conditions such as urinary incontinence. The World Health Organization (WHO) describes the postnatal period as the most critical and yet the most neglected phase in the lives of mothers and babies; most maternal and newborn deaths occur during this period. [2]

Contents

In scientific literature, the term is commonly abbreviated to Px, where x is a number; for example, "day P5" should be read as "the fifth day after birth". This is not to be confused with the medical nomenclature that uses G P to stand for number and outcomes of pregnancy (gravidity and parity).

A woman giving birth may leave as soon as she is medically stable, which can be as early as a few hours postpartum, though the average for a vaginal birth is one to two days. The average caesarean section postnatal stay is three to four days. [3] During this time, the mother is monitored for bleeding, bowel and bladder function, and baby care. The infant's health is also monitored. [4] Early postnatal hospital discharge is typically defined as discharge of the mother and newborn from the hospital within 48 hours of birth.

The postpartum period can be divided into three distinct stages; the initial or acute phase, 8–19 hours after childbirth; subacute postpartum period, which lasts two to six weeks, and the delayed postpartum period, which can last up to six months. [5] In the subacute postpartum period, 87% to 94% of women report at least one health problem. [6] [7] Long-term health problems (persisting after the delayed postpartum period) are reported by 31% of women. [8]

Various organizations recommend routine postpartum evaluation at certain time intervals in the postpartum period. [9]

Acute phase

Infant placed directly on the chest following childbirth Postpartum baby2.jpg
Infant placed directly on the chest following childbirth
Postpartum uterine massage helps the uterus to contract after the placenta has been expelled in the acute phase. Front View of Postpartum Uterine Massage.png
Postpartum uterine massage helps the uterus to contract after the placenta has been expelled in the acute phase.

The first 6 to 12 hours after childbirth is the initial or acute phase of the postpartum period. [10] During this time the mother is typically monitored by nurses or midwives as complications can arise.

The greatest health risk in the acute phase is postpartum bleeding. Following delivery the area where the placenta was attached to the uterine wall bleeds, and the uterus must contract to prevent blood loss. After contraction takes place the fundus (top) of the uterus can be palpated as a firm mass at the level of the navel. It is important that the uterus remains firm and the nurse or midwife will make frequent assessments of both the fundus and the amount of bleeding. Uterine massage is commonly used to help the uterus contract. [11]

Following delivery if the mother had an episiotomy [12] or tearing at the opening of the vagina, it is stitched. In the past, an episiotomy was routine. However, more recent research shows that routine episiotomy, when a normal delivery without complications or instrumentation is anticipated, does not offer benefits in terms of reducing perineal or vaginal trauma. Selective use of episiotomy results in less perineal trauma. [13] A healthcare professional can recommend comfort measures to help to ease perineal pain. [11]

Infant caring in the acute phase

Infant nursing shortly after birth A few moments more.jpg
Infant nursing shortly after birth
Woman nurses twins six days after birth. The linea nigra is still visible. Breastfeeding 6 day old twins.jpg
Woman nurses twins six days after birth. The linea nigra is still visible.

Within about 10 seconds the infant takes its first breath and the caregiver places the baby on the mother's chest. The infant's condition is evaluated using the Apgar scale. [14] The Apgar score is determined by evaluating the newborn baby on five criteria which are summarized using words chosen to form an acronym (Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, Respiration). Until recently babies were routinely removed from their mothers following birth; however beginning around 2000, some authorities began to suggest that early skin-to-skin contact (placing the naked baby on the mother's chest) is of benefit to both mother and infant. As of 2014, early skin-to-skin contact, also called kangaroo care, is endorsed by all major organizations that are responsible for the well-being of infants. Thus, to help establish bonding and successful breastfeeding, the caregiver carries out immediate mother and infant assessments as the infant lies on the mother's chest and removes the infant for further observations only after they have had their first breastfeed, depending on the mother's preference. The World Health Organization (WHO) also encourages skin-to-skin contact for the first 24 hours after birth to help regulate the baby's temperature. [15]

Subacute postpartum period

The subacute postpartum starts after the acute postpartum period concludes and can last for two to six weeks. [10]

Physical recovery in the subacute postpartum period

In the first few days following childbirth, the risk of a deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is relatively high as hypercoagulability increases during pregnancy and is maximal in the postpartum period, [16] particularly for women with C-section with reduced mobility. Anti-coagulants or physical methods such as compression may be used in the hospital, particularly if the woman has risk factors, such as obesity, prolonged immobility, recent C-section, or first-degree relative with a history of thrombotic episode. For women with a history of thrombotic event in pregnancy or prior to pregnancy, anticoagulation is generally recommended. [17]

The increased vascularity (blood flow) and edema (swelling) of the woman's vagina gradually resolves in about three weeks.[ citation needed ] The cervix gradually narrows and lengths over a few weeks. [18] Postpartum infections can lead to sepsis and if untreated, death. [19] Postpartum urinary incontinence is experienced by about 33% of all women; women who deliver vaginally are about twice as likely to have urinary incontinence as women who give birth via a cesarean. [20] Urinary incontinence in this period increases the risk of long term incontinence. [10] In the subacute postpartum period, 87% to 94% of women report at least one health problem. [6] [7] Kegel exercises are recommended to strengthen the pelvic floor muscles and control urinary incontinence. [21]

Adult diapers may be worn in the subacute postpartum period for lochia, as well as urinary and fecal incontinence. Adult diapers in Tel Aviv.jpg
Adult diapers may be worn in the subacute postpartum period for lochia, as well as urinary and fecal incontinence.

Discharge from the uterus, called lochia, will gradually decrease and turn from bright red, to brownish, to yellow and cease at around five or six weeks. Women are advised in this period to wear adult diapers or nappies, disposable maternity briefs, maternity pads or towels, or sanitary napkins. The use of tampons or menstrual cups are contraindicated as they may introduce bacteria and increase the risk of infection. [22] An increase in lochia between 7–14 days postpartum may indicate delayed postpartum hemorrhage. [23]

Hemorrhoids and constipation in this period are common, and stool softeners are routinely given. [24] If an episiotomy or perineal tear had to be sutured, the use of a donut pillow allows the woman to sit pain-free or at least with reduced pain.

Some women feel uterine contractions, called afterpains, during the first few days after delivery. They have been described as similar to menstrual cramps and are more common during breastfeeding, due to the release of oxytocin. The cramping is the compressing of the blood vessels in the uterus to prevent bleeding. [25]

Infant caring in the subacute period

At two to four days postpartum, a woman's breastmilk will generally come in. [26] Historically, women who were not breastfeeding (nursing their babies) were given drugs to suppress lactation, but this is no longer medically indicated. In this period, difficulties with breastfeeding may arise. Maternal sleep is often disturbed as night waking is normal in the newborn, and newborns need to be fed every two to three hours, including during the night. [27] The lactation consultant, health visitor, monthly nurse, postnatal doula, or kraamverzorgster may be of assistance at this time.

Psychological disorders

During the subacute postpartum period, psychological disorders may emerge. Among these are postpartum depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, and in rare cases, postpartum psychosis. [28] Postpartum mental illness can affect both mothers and fathers, and is not uncommon. [29] Early detection and adequate treatment is required. Approximately 70–80% of postpartum women will experience the "baby blues" for a few days. Between 10 and 20 percent may experience clinical depression, with a higher risk among those women with a history of postpartum depression, clinical depression, anxiety, or other mood disorders. [30] Prevalence of PTSD following normal childbirth (excluding stillbirth or major complications) is estimated to be between 2.8% and 5.6% at six weeks postpartum. [31]

Maternal-infant postpartum evaluation

Various organizations across the world recommend routine postpartum evaluation in the postpartum period. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recognizes the postpartum period (the "fourth trimester") as critical for women and infants. Instead of the traditional single four- to six-week postpartum visit, ACOG, as of 2018, recommends that postpartum care be an ongoing process. They recommend that all women have contact (either in person or by phone) with their obstetric provider within the first three weeks postpartum to address acute issues, with subsequent care as needed. A more comprehensive postpartum visit should be done at four to twelve weeks postpartum to address the mother's mood and emotional well-being, physical recovery after birth, infant feeding, pregnancy spacing and contraception, chronic disease management, and preventive health care and health maintenance. Results of a 2023 systematic review of the evidence suggests a relationship between having sufficient health insurance and attendance at follow-up postpartum care visits that may prevent additional needs for preventable care. [32]

Women with hypertensive disorders should have a blood pressure check within three to ten days postpartum. A 2023 systematic review of the literature suggests monitoring the blood pressure at home of women in the postpartum period appears to help with overall blood pressure measures and supports overall patient satisfaction. [33] More than one half of postpartum strokes occur within ten days of discharge after delivery. Women with chronic medical (e.g., hypertensive disorders, diabetes, kidney disease, thyroid disease) and psychiatric conditions should continue to follow with their obstetric or primary care provider for ongoing disease management. Women with pregnancies complicated by hypertension, gestational diabetes, or preterm birth should undergo counseling and evaluation for cardiometabolic disease, as lifetime risk of cardiovascular disease is higher in these women. [9]

Similarly, the World Health Organization recommends postpartum evaluation of the mother and infant at three days, one to two weeks, and six weeks postpartum. [9]

Delayed postpartum period

The delayed postpartum period starts after the subacute postpartum period and lasts up to six months. [10] During this time, muscles and connective tissue returns to a pre-pregnancy state. Recovery from childbirth complications in this period, such as urinary and fecal incontinence, painful intercourse, and pelvic prolapse, are typically very slow and in some cases may not resolve. [10] Symptoms of PTSD often subside in this period, dropping from 2.8% and 5.6% at six weeks postpartum to 1.5% at six months postpartum. [31] [34] During this period, infant sleep during the night gradually increases and maternal sleep generally improves. [27]

Approximately three months after giving birth (typically between two and five months), estrogen levels drop and large amounts of hair loss is common, particularly in the temple area (postpartum alopecia). Hair typically grows back normally and treatment is not indicated. [35] [36]

Many factors figure into the likelihood of post natal problems including the size of the infant; the method of delivery, such as c-section, or of forceps; perineum trauma from either an episiotomy or natural tearing; and the physical condition of the birth mother. Conditions that may result from childbirth include uterine prolapse, cystocele, rectocele, fecal incontinence, and urinary incontinence. [37] Other conditions that may also arise in this period include postpartum thyroiditis. Long-term health problems (persisting after the delayed postpartum period) are reported by 31% of women. [8]

Ongoing physical and mental health evaluation, risk factor identification, and preventive health care should be provided (see § Maternal-infant postpartum evaluation).

Return to work

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommends women take at least six weeks off work following childbirth. In the U.S., the only national maternity leave provision is covered by the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA), which entitles new parents to up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave. However, 60% of new parents are unable to afford taking unpaid leave for six weeks. According to U.S. Department of Labor statistics, only 17% have access to paid leave. [38]

The National Partnership for Women & Families, an organization that works to promote the wellbeing of women and families, says "the benefits of paid family leave in states that have introduced it include improved worker morale, time for parents to bond with their children, increased breastfeeding, more children getting vaccinations on time, cuts in children’s hospital admissions and reduced probabilities of having ADHD and hearing problems." [38]

The United States is the only country in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) that does not provide paid maternity, paternity, and parental leave. Thirteen countries, including eight of the European countries and Colombia, Costa Rica, Chile, Argentina and Mexico offer at least three months of equivalent pay. [39]

Cultures

A mother in Florence lying-in, from a painted desco da parto or birth tray of c. 1410. As women tend to the child, expensively dressed female guests are already arriving. 4 Master of Charles of Durazzo (Francesco di Michele) A Birth Scene (Desco da Parte), c. 1410 Harvard Art museum (2).jpg
A mother in Florence lying-in, from a painted desco da parto or birth tray of c. 1410. As women tend to the child, expensively dressed female guests are already arriving.

Postpartum confinement refers to a system for recovery following childbirth. It begins immediately after the birth, and lasts for a culturally variable length: typically for one month or 30 days, [40] up to 40 days, two months or 100 days. [41] This postnatal recuperation can include "traditional health beliefs, taboos, rituals, and proscriptions." [42] The practice used to be known as "lying-in", which, as the term suggests, centres around bed rest. (Maternity hospitals used to use this phrase, as in the General Lying-in Hospital.) Postpartum confinement customs are well-practiced in China, where it is known as "sitting the month", [43] and similar customs manifest all over the world. A modern version of this rest period has evolved, to give maximum support to the new mother. [43]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Midwifery</span> Pregnancy and childbirth-related profession

Midwifery is the health science and health profession that deals with pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period, in addition to the sexual and reproductive health of women throughout their lives. In many countries, midwifery is a medical profession. A professional in midwifery is known as a midwife.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Childbirth</span> Conclusion of the human pregnancy with the expulsion of a fetus from mothers womb

Childbirth, also known as labour, parturition and delivery, is the completion of pregnancy where one or more babies exits the internal environment of the mother via vaginal delivery or caesarean section. In 2019, there were about 140.11 million human births globally. In the developed countries, most deliveries occur in hospitals, while in the developing countries most are home births.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Postpartum depression</span> Mood disorder experienced after childbirth

Postpartum depression (PPD), also called postnatal depression, is a mood disorder experienced after childbirth, which can affect men and women. Symptoms may include extreme sadness, low energy, anxiety, crying episodes, irritability, and changes in sleeping or eating patterns. PPD can also negatively affect the newborn child.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Live birth (human)</span> Event that a fetus is born alive with heartbeats or respiration

In human reproduction, a live birth occurs when a fetus exits the mother showing any definite sign of life such as voluntary movement, heartbeat, or pulsation of the umbilical cord, for however brief a time and regardless of whether the umbilical cord or placenta are intact. After the fetus is expelled from the maternal body it is called a neonate. Whether the birth is vaginal or by caesarean section, and whether the neonate is ultimately viable, is irrelevant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Episiotomy</span> Surgical incision of the perineum and the posterior vaginal wall

Episiotomy, also known as perineotomy, is a surgical incision of the perineum and the posterior vaginal wall generally done by an obstetrician. This is usually performed during the second stage of labor to quickly enlarge the aperture, allowing the baby to pass through. The incision, which can be done from the posterior midline of the vulva straight toward the anus or at an angle to the right or left, is performed under local anesthetic, and is sutured after delivery.

Postpartum blues, also known as baby blues and maternity blues, is a very common but self-limited condition that begins shortly after childbirth and can present with a variety of symptoms such as mood swings, irritability, and tearfulness. Mothers may experience negative mood symptoms mixed with intense periods of joy. Up to 85% of new mothers are affected by postpartum blues, with symptoms starting within a few days after childbirth and lasting up to two weeks in duration. Treatment is supportive, including ensuring adequate sleep and emotional support. If symptoms are severe enough to affect daily functioning or last longer than two weeks, the individual should be evaluated for related postpartum psychiatric conditions, such as postpartum depression and postpartum anxiety. It is unclear whether the condition can be prevented, however education and reassurance are important to help alleviate patient distress.

Maternal health is the health of women during pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period. In most cases, maternal health encompasses the health care dimensions of family planning, preconception, prenatal, and postnatal care in order to ensure a positive and fulfilling experience. In other cases, maternal health can reduce maternal morbidity and mortality. Maternal health revolves around the health and wellness of pregnant women, particularly when they are pregnant, at the time they give birth, and during child-raising. WHO has indicated that even though motherhood has been considered as a fulfilling natural experience that is emotional to the mother, a high percentage of women develop health problems and sometimes even die. Because of this, there is a need to invest in the health of women. The investment can be achieved in different ways, among the main ones being subsidizing the healthcare cost, education on maternal health, encouraging effective family planning, and ensuring progressive check up on the health of women with children. Maternal morbidity and mortality particularly affects women of color and women living in low and lower-middle income countries.

A postpartum disorder or puerperal disorder is a disease or condition which presents primarily during the days and weeks after childbirth called the postpartum period. The postpartum period can be divided into three distinct stages: the initial or acute phase, 6–12 hours after childbirth; subacute postpartum period, which lasts two to six weeks, and the delayed postpartum period, which can last up to six months. In the subacute postpartum period, 87% to 94% of women report at least one health problem. Long term health problems are reported by 31% of women.

Early postnatal hospital discharge generally refers to the postpartum hospital discharge of the mother and newborn within 48 hours. The duration of what is considered "early discharge" varies between countries from 12 to 72 hours due to the differences in average duration of hospital stay. The World Health Organization recommends healthy mothers and newborns following an uncomplicated vaginal delivery at a health facility to stay and receive care at the facility for at least 24 hours after delivery. This recommendation is based on findings which suggest that the first 24 hours after giving birth poses the greatest risks for both the mother and newborn.

Sex after pregnancy is often delayed for several weeks or months, and may be difficult and painful for women. Painful intercourse is the most common sexual activity-related complication after childbirth. Since there are no guidelines on resuming sexual intercourse after childbirth, the postpartum patients are generally advised to resume sex when they feel comfortable to do so. Injury to the perineum or surgical cuts (episiotomy) to the vagina during childbirth can cause sexual dysfunction. Sexual activity in the postpartum period other than sexual intercourse is possible sooner, but some women experience a prolonged loss of sexual desire after giving birth, which may be associated with postnatal depression. Common issues that may last more than a year after birth are greater desire by the man than the woman, and a worsening of the woman's body image.

Childbirth-related post-traumatic stress disorder is a psychological disorder that can develop in women who have recently given birth. This disorder can also affect men or partners who have observed a difficult birth. Its symptoms are not distinct from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). It may also be called post-traumatic stress disorder following childbirth (PTSD-FC).

Antenatal depression, also known as prenatal or perinatal depression, is a form of clinical depression that can affect a woman during pregnancy, and can be a precursor to postpartum depression if not properly treated. It is estimated that 7% to 20% of pregnant women are affected by this condition. Any form of prenatal stress felt by the mother can have negative effects on various aspects of fetal development, which can cause harm to the mother and child. Even after birth, a child born from a depressed or stressed mother feels the affects. The child is less active and can also experience emotional distress. Antenatal depression can be caused by the stress and worry that pregnancy can bring, but at a more severe level. Other triggers include unplanned pregnancy, difficulty becoming pregnant, history of abuse, and economic or family situations.

HIV in pregnancy is the presence of an HIV/AIDS infection in a woman while she is pregnant. There is a risk of HIV transmission from mother to child in three primary situations: pregnancy, childbirth, and while breastfeeding. This topic is important because the risk of viral transmission can be significantly reduced with appropriate medical intervention, and without treatment HIV/AIDS can cause significant illness and death in both the mother and child. This is exemplified by data from The Centers for Disease Control (CDC): In the United States and Puerto Rico between the years of 2014–2017, where prenatal care is generally accessible, there were 10,257 infants in the United States and Puerto Rico who were exposed to a maternal HIV infection in utero who did not become infected and 244 exposed infants who did become infected.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Postpartum confinement</span> Cultural practice

Postpartum confinement is a traditional practice following childbirth. Those who follow these customs typically begin immediately after the birth, and the seclusion or special treatment lasts for a culturally variable length: typically for one month or 30 days, 26 days, up to 40 days, two months, or 100 days. This postnatal recuperation can include care practices in regards of "traditional health beliefs, taboos, rituals, and proscriptions." The practice used to be known as "lying-in", which, as the term suggests, centres on bed rest. In some cultures, it may be connected to taboos concerning impurity after childbirth.

This article provides a background on Nepal as a whole, with a focus on the nation's childbearing and birthing practices. While modern Western medicine has disseminated across the country to varying degrees, different regions in Nepal continue to practice obstetric and newborn care according to traditional beliefs, attitudes, and customs.

The maternal mortality rate is 224 deaths per 100,000 births, which is the 23rd highest in the world. The mean age of mothers at birth is 19.3 years old, and the fertility rate is 5.72 children born per woman, which is the 7th highest in the world. The contraceptive rate is only 40.8%, and the birth rate is the 4th highest in the world at 42.13 births/1,000 population. Infectious disease is a key contributor to the poor health of the nation, and the risk is very high for diseases such as protozoal and bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever, malaria, dengue fever, schistosomiasis, and rabies. The adult prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS is 12.37%, which is the 7th highest in the world.

Postpartum care or postnatal care is a service provided to individuals in the postpartum period, to help with postpartum recuperation and restoration.

Sanhujori is the Korean culturally specific form of postpartum care. It includes consuming healthy foods, doing exercise and warming up the body. The sanhujori period typically lasts approximately from one week to one month. Sanhujori is a compound word: 'sanhu' and 'jori'.

The postpartum physiological changes are those expected changes that occur in the woman's body after childbirth, in the postpartum period. These changes mark the beginning of the return of pre-pregnancy physiology and of breastfeeding. Most of the time these postnatal changes are normal and can be managed with medication and comfort measures, but in a few situations complications may develop. Postpartum physiological changes may be different for women delivering by cesarean section. Other postpartum changes, may indicate developing complications such as, postpartum bleeding, engorged breasts, postpartum infections.

This article documents traditional and some modern childbirth practices in Korea. Korea has some special cultures in terms of childbirth. An interesting fact about Korea’s childbirth is that Korea reached 0.95% birthrate in 2019, which is the lowest among OECD countries. Most of the women go to the hospital for childbirth these days. There is a special place for the postnatal care center, which is called Sanhujori center.

References

  1. ↑ Lopez-Gonzalez DM (2023). "Postpartum Care of the New Mother". StatPearls. PMID   33351433.
  2. ↑ WHO Recommendations on Postnatal Care of the Mother and Newborn. World Health Organization. 2013. ISBN   9789241506649. PMID   24624481. Archived from the original on 20 January 2022. Retrieved 12 March 2022.
  3. ↑ "Recovering from a caesarean section". NHS Choices. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 16 December 2016.
  4. ↑ Vernon D (2007). With Women, Midwives Experiences: from Shiftwork to Continuity of Care. Canberra: Australian College of Midwives. p. 17. ISBN   978-0-9751674-5-8.
  5. ↑ Romano M, Cacciatore A, Giordano R, La Rosa B (April 2010). "Postpartum period: three distinct but continuous phases". Journal of Prenatal Medicine. 4 (2): 22–25. PMC   3279173 . PMID   22439056.
  6. 1 2 Glazener CM, Abdalla M, Stroud P, Naji S, Templeton A, Russell IT (April 1995). "Postnatal maternal morbidity: extent, causes, prevention and treatment". British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 102 (4): 282–287. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.1995.tb09132.x. PMID   7612509. S2CID   38872754.
  7. 1 2 Thompson JF, Roberts CL, Currie M, Ellwood DA (June 2002). "Prevalence and persistence of health problems after childbirth: associations with parity and method of birth". Birth. 29 (2): 83–94. doi:10.1046/j.1523-536X.2002.00167.x. PMID   12051189.
  8. 1 2 Borders N (2006). "After the afterbirth: a critical review of postpartum health relative to method of delivery". Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health. 51 (4): 242–248. doi:10.1016/j.jmwh.2005.10.014. PMID   16814217.
  9. 1 2 3 "ACOG Committee Opinion: Optimizing Postpartum Care". May 2018. Archived from the original on April 28, 2020. Retrieved April 29, 2020.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Gaitzsch J, Appelhans D, Wang L, Battaglia G, Voit B (April 2012). "Synthetic bio-nanoreactor: mechanical and chemical control of polymersome membrane permeability". Angewandte Chemie. 51 (18): 4448–4451. doi:10.1002/anie.201108814. PMC   3279173 . PMID   22438056.
  11. 1 2 Mayo Clinic staff (30 July 2015). "Labor and delivery, postpartum care". Mayo Clinic. Archived from the original on 27 July 2015. Retrieved 15 August 2015.
  12. ↑ Romano M, Cacciatore A, Giordano R, La Rosa B (April 2010). "Postpartum period: three distinct but continuous phases". Journal of Prenatal Medicine. 4 (2): 22–25. PMC   3279173 . PMID   22439056.
  13. ↑ Jiang H, Qian X, Carroli G, Garner P (February 2017). "Selective versus routine use of episiotomy for vaginal birth". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2017 (2): CD000081. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000081.pub3. PMC   5449575 . PMID   28176333. Archived from the original on 2020-05-15. Retrieved 2020-05-18.
  14. ↑ "The Apgar Score". www.acog.org. Archived from the original on 2021-01-25. Retrieved 2021-03-04.
  15. ↑ Phillips R. "Uninterrupted Skin-to-Skin Contact Immediately After Birth". Medscape. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 21 December 2014.
  16. ↑ Fiengo L, Bucci F, Patrizi G, Giannotti D, Redler A (February 2013). "Postpartum deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in twin pregnancy: undertaking of clinical symptoms leading to massive complications". Thrombosis Journal. 11 (1): 4. doi: 10.1186/1477-9560-11-4 . PMC   3629711 . PMID   23433174.
  17. ↑ American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists' Committee on Practice Bulletins—Obstetrics (July 2018). "ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 196: Thromboembolism in Pregnancy". Obstetrics and Gynecology. 132 (1): e1–e17. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000002706. PMID   29939938. S2CID   49404670.
  18. ↑ "Childbirth recovery and postpartum care". www.aboutkidshealth.ca. Archived from the original on 2021-09-25. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
  19. ↑ WHO (2013). "WHO recommendations on postnatal care of the mother and newborn". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 22 December 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2014.
  20. ↑ Thom DH, Rortveit G (December 2010). "Prevalence of postpartum urinary incontinence: a systematic review". Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. 89 (12): 1511–1522. doi:10.3109/00016349.2010.526188. PMID   21050146. S2CID   18385231.
  21. ↑ "Postpartum care: After a vaginal delivery". Mayo Clinic. Archived from the original on 2020-05-28. Retrieved 2020-05-18.
  22. ↑ N. H. S. Choices (2017-07-20). "How soon can I use tampons after giving birth?". N.H.S. Choices. Archived from the original on 2018-04-23. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
  23. ↑ Kansky C (July 2016). "Normal and Abnormal Puerperium: Overview, Routine Postpartum Care, Hemorrhage". Medscape. Archived from the original on 2017-11-09. Retrieved 2017-11-08.
  24. ↑ "Postpartum hemorrhoids". Baby Center. Archived from the original on 2017-06-22. Retrieved 2018-05-19.
  25. ↑ "Postpartum care: What to expect after a vaginal birth". The Mayo Clinic. Archived from the original on May 21, 2023. Retrieved April 22, 2023.
  26. ↑ "Breastfeeding: the first few days". www.nhs.uk. 2017-12-21. Archived from the original on 2018-04-23. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
  27. 1 2 McGuire E (July 2013). "Maternal and infant sleep postpartum". Breastfeeding Review. 21 (2): 38–41. PMID   23957180.
  28. ↑ Dobson V, Sales B (2000). "The Science of Infanticide and Mental Illness". Psychology, Public Policy, and Law. 6 (4): 1098–1112. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.6.4.1098.
  29. ↑ "Postpartum Depression". Canadian Mental Health Association. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved July 9, 2014.
  30. ↑ "Statistics on Postpartum Depression - Postpartum Depression Resources". PostpartumDepression.org. Archived from the original on 2020-05-13. Retrieved 2020-05-18.
  31. 1 2 Olde E, van der Hart O, Kleber R, van Son M (January 2006). "Posttraumatic stress following childbirth: a review". Clinical Psychology Review. 26 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.07.002. hdl: 1874/16760 . PMID   16176853. S2CID   22137961.
  32. ↑ Saldanha IJ, Adam GP, Kanaan G, Zahradnik ML, Steele DW, Chen KK, et al. (June 2023). "Health Insurance Coverage and Postpartum Outcomes in the US: A Systematic Review". JAMA Network Open. 6 (6): e2316536. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.16536. PMC   10238947 . PMID   37266938.
  33. ↑ Steele DW, Adam GP, Saldanha IJ, Kanaan G, Zahradnik ML, Danilack-Fekete VA, et al. (August 2023). "Postpartum Home Blood Pressure Monitoring: A Systematic Review". Obstetrics and Gynecology. 142 (2): 285–295. doi: 10.1097/AOG.0000000000005270 . PMID   37311173.
  34. ↑ Alder J, Stadlmayr W, Tschudin S, Bitzer J (June 2006). "Post-traumatic symptoms after childbirth: what should we offer?". Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 27 (2): 107–112. doi:10.1080/01674820600714632. PMID   16808085. S2CID   21859634.
  35. ↑ Schiff BL, Kern AB (May 1963). "Study of postpartum alopecia". Archives of Dermatology. 87 (5): 609–611. doi:10.1001/archderm.1963.01590170067011. PMID   13991677.
  36. ↑ Eastham JH (February 2001). "Postpartum alopecia". The Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 35 (2): 255–258. doi:10.1345/1542-6270(2001)035<0255:pa>2.0.co;2. PMID   11215848.
  37. ↑ Romano M, Cacciatore A, Giordano R, La Rosa B (April 2010). "Postpartum period: three distinct but continuous phases". Journal of Prenatal Medicine. 4 (2): 22–25. PMC   3279173 . PMID   22439056.
  38. 1 2 Bryant M (27 January 2020). "'I was risking my life': why one in four US women return to work two weeks after childbirth". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved April 23, 2023.
  39. ↑ "Paid Maternity Leave Across the World in 2022". business.org. 3 May 2022. Archived from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved April 23, 2023.
  40. ↑ Chien YC, Huang YJ, Hsu CS, Chao JC, Liu JF (March 2009). "Maternal lactation characteristics after consumption of an alcoholic soup during the postpartum 'doing-the-month' ritual". Public Health Nutrition. 12 (3): 382–388. doi: 10.1017/S1368980008002152 . PMID   18426631.
  41. ↑ "Confinement practices: an overview". BabyCenter. Archived from the original on 2017-12-07. Retrieved 2016-03-21.
  42. ↑ Tung WC (22 June 2010). "Doing the Month and Asian Cultures: Implications for Health Care". Home Health Care Management & Practice. 22 (5): 369–371. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.1020.5139 . doi:10.1177/1084822310367473. S2CID   73055081.
  43. 1 2 Lary D (2022). China's grandmothers : gender, family, and aging from late Qing to twenty-first century. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 41. ISBN   978-1-009-06478-1. OCLC   1292532755.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.