Antenatal depression

Last updated
Antenatal depression
Specialty OB/GYN psychiatry

Antenatal depression, also known as prenatal or perinatal depression, is a form of clinical depression that can affect a woman during pregnancy, and can be a precursor to postpartum depression if not properly treated. [1] [2] It is estimated that 7% to 20% of pregnant women are affected by this condition. [3] Any form of prenatal stress felt by the mother can have negative effects on various aspects of fetal development, which can cause harm to the mother and child. Even after birth, a child born from a depressed or stressed mother feels the affects. The child is less active and can also experience emotional distress. Antenatal depression can be caused by the stress and worry that pregnancy can bring, but at a more severe level. Other triggers include unplanned pregnancy, difficulty becoming pregnant, history of abuse, and economic or family situations. [4]

Contents

Commonly, symptoms involve how the patient views herself, how she feels about going through such a life changing event, the restrictions on the mother's lifestyle that motherhood will place, or how the partner or family feel about the baby. [5] Pregnancy places significant strain on a woman's body, so stress, mood swings, sadness, irritability, pain, and memory changes are to be expected. Left untreated, antenatal depression can be extremely dangerous for the health of the mother and the baby. It is highly recommended that mothers who feel they are experiencing antenatal depression have a discussion about it with their health care provider. Mothers with a history of mental health issues should also talk to their doctor about it early in the pregnancy to help with possible depressive symptoms.

Signs and symptoms

Antenatal depression is classified based on a woman's symptoms. During pregnancy, a lot of changes to mood, memory, eating habits, and sleep are common. When these common traits become severe, and begin to alter one's day-to-day life, that is when it is considered to be antenatal depression. Symptoms of antenatal depression are:

Other symptoms can include the inability to get excited about the pregnancy, and/or baby, a feeling of disconnection with the baby, and an inability to form/feel a bond with the developing baby. [7] This can drastically affect the relationship between the mother and the baby, and can drastically affect the mother's capacity for self-care. Such inadequacies can lead to even greater risk factors for the mother. [8] Antenatal depression can be triggered by various causes, including relationship problems, family or personal history of depression, infertility, previous pregnancy loss, complications in pregnancy, and a history of abuse or trauma. [9]

Onset and duration of symptoms

Antenatal depression can be caused by many factors. Often it is associated with the fear and stress of the pregnancy. Other factors include unintended pregnancy, hyperemesis gravidarum, financial issues, living arrangements and relationships with the father and family. [10] [11] Typically, depression symptoms associated with pregnancy are categorized as postnatal depression, due to the onset of symptoms occurring after childbirth has occurred. The following is a breakdown of when a group of various women began to feel the onset of symptoms associated with depression:

In a recent article posted by The BabyCenter, the authors stated that "For years, experts mistakenly believed that pregnancy hormones protected against depression, leaving women more vulnerable to the illness only after the baby was born and their hormone levels plunged." [13] This is a possible explanation as to why antenatal depression has just recently been identified.

Prevalence and causes

The prevalence of antenatal depression differs slightly by region of world. In the United States, antenatal depression is experienced in as many as 16% of pregnant women, while in South Asia it is experienced in as many as 24% of pregnant women. [14] [15] [16] It's becoming more prevalent as more medical studies are being done. Antenatal depression was once thought to simply be the normal stress associated with any pregnancy, and was waved off as a common ailment. It can be caused by many factors, usually though involving aspects of the mothers personal life, such as family, economic standing, relationship status, etc. It can also be caused by hormonal and physical changes that are associated with pregnancy. [17] Additional risk factors include lack of social support, marital dissatisfaction, discriminatory work environments, history of domestic abuse, and unplanned or unwanted pregnancy. [18] Studies have determined that there may be a connection between antenatal and postpartum depression in women with lower vitamin D levels. [19] There is a higher risk of antenatal depression in woman living in low-income countries who deal with less access to quality healthcare, have economic issues, and don't have a good support system. [20]

Antenatal depression is also experienced by parents who identify as part of the LGBTQ+ community. Literature on the experiences of pregnancy amongst transgender men reveals that sources of antenatal depression amongst pregnant transgender men arise from gender dysphoria. [21] Where feelings of isolation and loneliness are already reported high amongst this particular group, the experiences they commonly face during their pregnancy exacerbate those feelings. [21]

Screening

Perinatal mental health screenings are important in detecting and diagnosing antenatal and postpartum depression early. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists is one of the many maternal health organizations that strongly encourage universal screening for expectant and postpartum women for depression as part of routine obstetric care. [22] In fact, many states, including California have already legislated laws that require providers to screen patients during visits because they recognize that early screenings can expedite the process in receiving effective treatment. The Patient Health Questionnaire 9 (PHQ-9) is a screening tool typically used to detect depression. [23] Another tool, the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, was developed for the postnatal period, but has also been validated for use during pregnancy. [24]

PHQ-9 is a reliable depression severity scale that was formulated in accordance with DSM-IV criteria for depression, consisting of 9 items correlating to the 9 criteria listed in DSM-IV. [25] It is a shortened version of the PHQ and has been assessed for comparable sensitivity and specificity. [25] The screening test is self-administered to patients and are usually performed at the primary care clinic. [25]

However, it is not enough to just provide mental health screenings to at risk patients. Interventions such as referrals to treatment and mental health monitoring should be implemented in health care systems in order to ensure these women are helped consistently throughout their recovery journey. [22]

Studies suggest that obese woman tend to develop mental health issues more frequently and should discuss any symptoms with their doctor at the first prenatal appointment. [26]

Treatment

Treatment for antenatal depression poses many challenges because the baby is also affected by any treatment given to the mother. [27] There are both non-pharmacological and pharmacological treatment options which can be considered by women with antenatal depression.

Non-pharmacological therapy

Psychotherapy

Psychotherapy is recommended for any woman with antenatal depression, [28] as it is an effective way for the mother to express her feelings in her own words. Specifically, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy effectively helps decrease symptoms of antenatal depression. [29] In addition to psychotherapy, being seen by a psychiatrist is recommended as they can assess if medications will be beneficial and make specific medication recommendations, if warranted. Familial support may also play a role in helping with the emotional aspects of antenatal depression. [30]

While mental health specialists are trained in providing counseling interventions, results from a recent systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature found that nonspecialist providers, such as lay counselors, nurses, midwives, and teachers with no formal training in counseling interventions, often fill a gap in providing effective services related to depression and anxiety treatments. [31]

Exercise therapy

Studies suggest that forms of exercise can help with depressive symptoms both before and after birth, but not prevent it entirely. [32]

Exercise options that have been studied to help reduce symptoms:

  • Yoga [33]
  • Walking
  • Stretching
  • Aerobic exercise [34]

Medications

When discussing medication options for antenatal depression, it is important to ask the prescribing healthcare provider to share more details about all the risks and benefits of the available medications. During pregnancy, there are two main kinds of antidepressants used during pregnancy; tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Once prescribed, anti-depressant medication has been found to be extremely effective in treating antenatal depression. Patients can expect to feel an improvement in mood in roughly 2 to 3 weeks on average, and can begin to feel themselves truly connect with their baby. Reported benefits of medication include returned appetite, increased mood, increased energy, and better concentration. Side effects are minor, though they are reported in some cases. Currently, no abnormalities of the baby have been associated with the use of antidepressants during pregnancy. [35] It may be true that maternal SSRI use during pregnancy can lead to difficulty for their newborn adjusting to conditions outside of the womb immediately following birth. Some studies indicate that infants with exposure to SSRIs in the second and third trimester were more likely to be admitted to intensive care following their birth for respiratory, cardiac, low weight and other reasons, and that infants with prenatal SSRI exposure exhibited less motor control upon delivery than infants who were not exposed to SSRIs. Newborns who were exposed to SSRIs for five months or more prior to birth were at a greater risk for lower Apgar scores 1 and 5 minutes after delivery, indicating they were of lesser health than newborns who were not exposed to SSRIs before birth. However, prenatal SSRI exposure was not found to have a significant impact the long-term mental and physical health of the children. These results are not independent of any effects of prenatal depression on infants. [36]

Connection to postpartum depression and parenting stress

Studies have found a strong link between antenatal depression and postpartum depression in women. In other words, women who have antenatal depression are very likely to also develop postpartum depression. The cause of this is based on the continuation of the antenatal depression into postpartum. In a logistical light, it makes sense that women who are depressed during their pregnancy will also be depressed following the birth of their child. [37] This being said there are some factors that determine exclusively the presence of postpartum depression that are not necessarily linked with antenatal depression. These examples include variables like socioeconomic class and if a pregnancy was planned or not. [38] [39]

In reference to a recent study by Coburn et al., the authors found that in addition to prenatal effects, higher maternal depressive symptoms during the postpartum period (12 weeks) were associated with more infant health concerns. This is consistent with other findings among low-SES Mexican-American women and their infants. [40] Women with prenatal depressive symptoms are more likely to develop postpartum depression, which can also have negative consequences on children, such as emotional and behavior problems, attachment difficulties, cognitive deficits, physical growth and development, and feeding habits and attitudes. [41] Related, maternal depression affects parenting behaviors, [42] which in turn could affect child outcomes. Thus, women's mental health throughout the perinatal period should be a priority, not only to support women, but also to promote optimal functioning for their infants. [43]

Antenatal depression and infant health

Depression during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion. In a review by Frazier et al., acute and chronic stress during pregnancy can diminish proper immunological activity crucial during pregnancy, and can possibly induce spontaneous abortion. [44] There is still a debate on whether the miscarriage is due to the depressive disease state or the anti-depressant medication. A large study conducted in Denmark observed that there was a higher incidence of first trimester miscarriage in depressed women not exposed to SSRI compared to non-depressed women exposed to SSRI, [45] indicating that the miscarriage may be associated with the psychological state of the mother rather than the anti-depressant.

Depressive symptoms in pregnant women are linked with poor health outcomes in infants. [46] The rates of hospitalization are found increased for infants who are born to women with high depression levels during pregnancy. Reduced breastfeeding, poor physical growth, lower birth weight, early gestational age and high rates of diarrheal infection are some of the reported outcomes of poor health among infants born to depressed pregnant women. [47] In fact, positive antenatal screenings administered in the first or third trimester are found to be high risk factors for early cessation in breastfeeding. [48] Studies also report that the environmental effects of maternal depression affect the developing fetus to such an extent that the impact can be seen during adulthood of the offspring. The effects are worse for women from low socio-economic backgrounds. In a recent study by Coburn et al., [46] maternal prenatal depressive symptoms predicted significantly higher number of infant health concerns at 12-weeks (3 months) of age. The health concerns included rash, colic, cold, fever, cough, diarrhea, ear infections, and vomiting. [46] Additional concerns for women in low-income backgrounds includes low birth rate and preterm births. [20]

An interesting and informative area of research has been done to see the role of confounding variables in relationship of maternal prenatal depression with infant health concerns. Age of mother, romantic partner, education, household income, immigrant status, and number of other children, breastfeeding, gestational age, birth weight are some of the mediating or moderating factors which are found correlated with infant health concerns. [49] The studies of post-partum depressive symptoms are relatively more than those of prenatal depression and the studies should look into the role of various factors during pregnancy that may impact the health of infants, even continuing into adulthood. [49]

Male perspective for antenatal depression

More than 10% of father experience paternal perinatal depression (PPND). [50] Symptoms are common displayed as fatigue or changes in sleep and eating patterns. [51] A systematic review done in 2016 also found that between 4-16% of men experienced anxiety during the antenatal period. [52] Men whose partners are women struggling with antenatal or postnatal depression often find themselves receiving less affection and intimacy from their partners. [53] If symptoms of antenatal depression arise in mothers, it is recommended for fathers to provide encouragement for their partners to discuss their condition with a healthcare provider. [53] It is also important for the father to seek support for themselves. Fathers who experience depression are more likely to spank their children and less likely to interact with them. [54] In a research study performed in Sweden observing 366,499 births, newly diagnosed paternal depression around the time of conception or during pregnancy was associated with an increased risk of preterm birth. However, a preexisting paternal depression did not show any correlation, which may be due to the mother's perception of the changes in their partner's mood. [55]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Childbirth</span> Conclusion of the human pregnancy with the expulsion of a fetus from mothers womb

Childbirth, also known as labour, parturition and delivery, is the completion of pregnancy where one or more babies exits the internal environment of the mother via vaginal delivery or caesarean section. In 2019, there were about 140.11 million human births globally. In developed countries, most deliveries occur in hospitals, while in developing countries most are home births.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prenatal care</span> Medical check-ups during pregnancy

Prenatal care, also known as antenatal care, is a type of preventive healthcare. It is provided in the form of medical checkups, consisting of recommendations on managing a healthy lifestyle and the provision of medical information such as maternal physiological changes in pregnancy, biological changes, and prenatal nutrition including prenatal vitamins, which prevents potential health problems throughout the course of the pregnancy and promotes the mother and child's health alike. The availability of routine prenatal care, including prenatal screening and diagnosis, has played a part in reducing the frequency of maternal death, miscarriages, birth defects, low birth weight, neonatal infections and other preventable health problems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Postpartum depression</span> Mood disorder experienced after childbirth

Postpartum depression (PPD), also called perinataldepression, is a mood disorder which may be experienced by pregnant or postpartum individuals. Symptoms may include extreme sadness, low energy, anxiety, crying episodes, irritability, and changes in sleeping or eating patterns. PPD can also negatively affect the newborn child.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Postpartum period</span> Time period beginning after the birth of a child and extending for about one month

The postpartum period begins after childbirth and is typically considered to last for six weeks. There are three distinct phases of the postnatal period; the acute phase, lasting for six to twelve hours after birth; the subacute phase, lasting six weeks; and the delayed phase, lasting up to six months. During the delayed phase, some changes to the genitourinary system take much longer to resolve and may result in conditions such as urinary incontinence. The World Health Organization (WHO) describes the postnatal period as the most critical and yet the most neglected phase in the lives of mothers and babies; most maternal and newborn deaths occur during this period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maternal bond</span> Relationship between mother and child

A maternal bond is the relationship between a biological mother/caregiver and her child or baby. While typically associated with pregnancy and childbirth, a maternal bond may also develop in cases later on in life where the child is unrelated, such as in the case of an adoptee or a case of blended family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Complications of pregnancy</span> Medical condition

Complications of pregnancy are health problems that are related to, or arise during pregnancy. Complications that occur primarily during childbirth are termed obstetric labor complications, and problems that occur primarily after childbirth are termed puerperal disorders. While some complications improve or are fully resolved after pregnancy, some may lead to lasting effects, morbidity, or in the most severe cases, maternal or fetal mortality.

Postpartum blues, also known as baby blues and maternity blues, is a very common but self-limited condition that begins shortly after childbirth and can present with a variety of symptoms such as mood swings, irritability, and tearfulness. Mothers may experience negative mood symptoms mixed with intense periods of joy. Up to 85% of new mothers are affected by postpartum blues, with symptoms starting within a few days after childbirth and lasting up to two weeks in duration. Treatment is supportive, including ensuring adequate sleep and emotional support. If symptoms are severe enough to affect daily functioning or last longer than two weeks, the individual should be evaluated for related postpartum psychiatric conditions, such as postpartum depression and postpartum anxiety. It is unclear whether the condition can be prevented, however education and reassurance are important to help alleviate patient distress.

Mental health in China is a growing issue. Experts have estimated that about 130 million adults living in China are suffering from a mental disorder. The desire to seek treatment is largely hindered by China's strict social norms, as well as religious and cultural beliefs regarding personal reputation and social harmony.

Psychoneuroendocrinology is the clinical study of hormone fluctuations and their relationship to human behavior. It may be viewed from the perspective of psychiatry, where in certain mood disorders, there are associated neuroendocrine or hormonal changes affecting the brain. It may also be viewed from the perspective of endocrinology, where certain endocrine disorders can be associated with negative health outcomes and psychiatric illness. Brain dysfunctions associated with the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis HPA axis can affect the endocrine system, which in turn can result in physiological and psychological symptoms. This complex blend of psychiatry, psychology, neurology, biochemistry, and endocrinology is needed to comprehensively understand and treat symptoms related to the brain, endocrine system (hormones), and psychological health..

Maternal health is the health of people during pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period. In most cases, maternal health encompasses the health care dimensions of family planning, preconception, prenatal, and postnatal care in order to ensure a positive and fulfilling experience. In other cases, maternal health can reduce maternal morbidity and mortality. Maternal health revolves around the health and wellness of pregnant individuals, particularly when they are pregnant, at the time they give birth, and during child-raising. WHO has indicated that even though motherhood has been considered as a fulfilling natural experience that is emotional to the mother, a high percentage of women develop health problems, sometimes resulting in death. Because of this, there is a need to invest in the health of women. The investment can be achieved in different ways, among the main ones being subsidizing the healthcare cost, education on maternal health, encouraging effective family planning, and checking up on the health of individuals who have given birth. Maternal morbidity and mortality particularly affects women of color and women living in low and lower-middle income countries.

Prenatal stress, also known as prenatal maternal stress, occurs when an expectant mother is exposed to psychosocial or physical stress. This can be brought on by daily events or environmental hardships. [1 [2] According to the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD), a wide range of environmental factors a woman may experience during the perinatal period can contribute to biological impacts and changes in the fetus that then cause health risks later in the child's life.Health risks include impaired cognitive development, low birth weight, mental disorders, and gender specific deficits in the offspring.

A postpartum disorder or puerperal disorder is a disease or condition which presents primarily during the days and weeks after childbirth called the postpartum period. The postpartum period can be divided into three distinct stages: the initial or acute phase, 6–12 hours after childbirth; subacute postpartum period, which lasts two to six weeks, and the delayed postpartum period, which can last up to six months. In the subacute postpartum period, 87% to 94% of women report at least one health problem. Long term health problems are reported by 31% of women.

Childbirth-related post-traumatic stress disorder is a psychological disorder that can develop in women who have recently given birth. This disorder can also affect men or partners who have observed a difficult birth. Its symptoms are not distinct from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). It may also be called post-traumatic stress disorder following childbirth (PTSD-FC).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maternal healthcare in Texas</span>

Maternal healthcare in Texas refers to the provision of family planning services, abortion options, pregnancy-related services, and physical and mental well-being care for women during the prenatal and postpartum periods. The provision of maternal health services in each state can prevent and reduce the incidence of maternal morbidity and mortality and fetal death.

Mental disorders can be a consequence of miscarriage or early pregnancy loss. Even though women can develop long-term psychiatric symptoms after a miscarriage, acknowledging the potential of mental illness is not usually considered. A mental illness can develop in women who have experienced one or more miscarriages after the event or even years later. Some data suggest that men and women can be affected up to 15 years after the loss. Though recognized as a public health problem, studies investigating the mental health status of women following miscarriage are still lacking. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can develop in women who have experienced a miscarriage. Risks for developing PTSD after miscarriage include emotional pain, expressions of emotion, and low levels of social support. Even if relatively low levels of stress occur after the miscarriage, symptoms of PTSD including flashbacks, intrusive thoughts, dissociation and hyperarousal can later develop. Clinical depression also is associated with miscarriage. Past responses by clinicians have been to prescribe sedatives.

Maternal fetal stress transfer is a physiological phenomenon in which psychosocial stress experienced by a mother during her pregnancy can be transferred to the fetus. Psychosocial stress describes the brain's physiological response to perceived social threat. Because of a link in blood supply between a mother and fetus, it has been found that stress can leave lasting effects on a developing fetus, even before a child is born. According to recent studies, these effects are mainly the result of two particular stress biomarkers circulating in the maternal blood supply: cortisol and catecholamines.

Evolutionary approaches to postpartum depression examine the syndrome from the framework of evolutionary theory.

Paternal depression is a psychological disorder derived from parental depression. Paternal depression affects the mood of men; fathers and caregivers in particular. 'Father' may refer to the biological father, foster parent, social parent, step-parent or simply the carer of the child. This mood disorder exhibits symptoms similar to postpartum depression (PPD) including anxiety, insomnia, irritability, consistent breakdown and crying episodes, and low energy. This may negatively impact family relationships and the upbringing of children. Parents diagnosed with parental depression often experience increased stress and anxiety levels during early pregnancy, labor and postpartum. Those with parental depression may have developed it early on but some are diagnosed later on from when the child is a toddler up until a young adult.

Jeannette R. Ickovics is an American health and social psychologist. She is the inaugural Samuel and Liselotte Herman Professor of Social and Behavioral Sciences at the Yale School of Public Health and Professor of Psychology at the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences at Yale University.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breastfeeding and mental health</span>

Breastfeeding and mental health is the relationship between postpartum breastfeeding and the mother's and child's mental health. Research indicates breastfeeding may have positive effects on the mother's and child's mental health, though there have been conflicting studies that question the correlation and causation of breastfeeding and maternal mental health. Possible benefits include improved mood and stress levels in the mother, lower risk of postpartum depression, enhanced social emotional development in the child, stronger mother-child bonding and more. Given the benefits of breastfeeding, the World Health Organization (WHO), the European Commission for Public Health (ECPH) and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) suggest exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life. Despite these suggestions, estimates indicate 70% of mothers breastfeed their child after birth and 13.5% of infants in the United States are exclusively breastfed. Breastfeeding promotion and support for mothers who are experiencing difficulties or early cessation in breastfeeding is considered a health priority.

References

  1. ↑ "Depression in Women: 5 Things You Should Know". www.nimh.nih.gov. Retrieved 2019-11-20.
  2. ↑ "Understand the symptoms of depression during pregnancy". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2022-03-15.
  3. ↑ Wilson P. "Antenatal Depression". health.ninemsn.com. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
  4. ↑ Biaggi, Alessandra; Conroy, Susan; Pawlby, Susan; Pariante, Carmine M. (Feb 2016). "Identifying the women at risk of antenatal anxiety and depression: A systematic review". Journal of Affective Disorders. 191: 62–77. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.11.014. ISSN   0165-0327. PMC   4879174 . PMID   26650969.
  5. ↑ "Antenatal depression". www.nct.org.uk. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
  6. ↑ "Antenatal Depression". www.panda.org.asu. Archived from the original on 18 February 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
  7. ↑ "Antenatal Depression". www.babiesonline.com. Archived from the original on 20 April 2019. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
  8. ↑ Leigh B, Milgrom J (April 2008). "Risk factors for antenatal depression, postnatal depression and parenting stress". BMC Psychiatry. 8: 24. doi: 10.1186/1471-244X-8-24 . PMC   2375874 . PMID   18412979.
  9. ↑ Mukherjee S, Trepka MJ, Pierre-Victor D, Bahelah R, Avent T (September 2016). "Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Antenatal Depression in the United States: A Systematic Review". Maternal and Child Health Journal. 20 (9): 1780–97. doi:10.1007/s10995-016-1989-x. PMID   27016352. S2CID   32334253.
  10. ↑ "Mom's Mental Health Matters: Moms-to-be and Moms - NCMHEP | NICHD - Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development". www.nichd.nih.gov. 2022-06-02. Retrieved 2023-10-30.
  11. ↑ Boelig, Rupsa C; Barton, Samantha J; Saccone, Gabriele; Kelly, Anthony J; Edwards, Steve J; Berghella, Vincenzo (2016-05-11). Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group (ed.). "Interventions for treating hyperemesis gravidarum". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2016 (5): CD010607. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010607.pub2. PMC   10421833 . PMID   27168518.
  12. ↑ Sharps L (2012-10-18). "Prenatal Depression Warning Signs: Here's What to Look For". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2013-04-21.
  13. ↑ "Is it common to suffer from depression or anxiety during pregnancy?". The Baby Center. Retrieved 2013-04-21.
  14. ↑ Gavin NI, Gaynes BN, Lohr KN, Meltzer-Brody S, Gartlehner G, Swinson T (November 2005). "Perinatal depression: a systematic review of prevalence and incidence". Obstetrics and Gynecology. 106 (5 Pt 1): 1071–83. doi:10.1097/01.AOG.0000183597.31630.db. PMID   16260528. S2CID   1616729.
  15. ↑ Mahendran R, Puthussery S, Amalan M (August 2019). "Prevalence of antenatal depression in South Asia: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 73 (8): 768–777. doi:10.1136/jech-2018-211819. hdl: 10547/623278 . PMID   31010821. S2CID   128363186.
  16. ↑ Ashley JM, Harper BD, Arms-Chavez CJ, LoBello SG (April 2016). "Estimated prevalence of antenatal depression in the US population". Archives of Women's Mental Health. 19 (2): 395–400. doi:10.1007/s00737-015-0593-1. PMID   26687691. S2CID   9272059.
  17. ↑ "Prenatal (Antenatal) Depression". www.pandasfoundation.org.u. Pandas Foundation. Archived from the original on 2013-05-21. Retrieved 2013-05-13.
  18. ↑ Biaggi, Alessandra; Conroy, Susan; Pawlby, Susan; Pariante, Carmine M. (February 2016). "Identifying the women at risk of antenatal anxiety and depression: A systematic review". Journal of Affective Disorders. 191: 62–77. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.11.014. ISSN   0165-0327. PMC   4879174 . PMID   26650969.
  19. ↑ Aghajafari, Fariba; Letourneau, Nicole; Mahinpey, Newsha; Cosic, Nela; Giesbrecht, Gerald (2018-04-12). "Vitamin D Deficiency and Antenatal and Postpartum Depression: A Systematic Review". Nutrients. 10 (4): 478. doi: 10.3390/nu10040478 . ISSN   2072-6643. PMC   5946263 . PMID   29649128.
  20. 1 2 Fekadu Dadi, Abel; Miller, Emma R.; Mwanri, Lillian (2020-01-10). "Antenatal depression and its association with adverse birth outcomes in low and middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis". PLOS ONE. 15 (1): e0227323. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1527323F. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227323 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   6953869 . PMID   31923245.
  21. 1 2 MacLean, Lori Rebecca-Diane (April 2021). "Preconception, Pregnancy, Birthing, and Lactation Needs of Transgender Men". Nursing for Women's Health. 25 (2): 129–138. doi:10.1016/j.nwh.2021.01.006. PMID   33651985. S2CID   232101013.
  22. 1 2 Kendig S, Keats JP, Hoffman MC, Kay LB, Miller ES, Moore Simas TA, et al. (2017-03-01). "Consensus Bundle on Maternal Mental Health: Perinatal Depression and Anxiety". Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing. 46 (2): 272–281. doi:10.1016/j.jogn.2017.01.001. PMC   5957550 . PMID   28190757.
  23. ↑ "National Perinatal Association - Perinatal Mental Health". www.nationalperinatal.org. Archived from the original on 2020-05-16. Retrieved 2019-10-24.
  24. ↑ Bergink, Veerle; Kooistra, Libbe; Lambregtse-van den Berg, Mijke P.; Wijnen, Henny; Bunevicius, Robertas; van Baar, Anneloes; Pop, Victor (April 2011). "Validation of the Edinburgh Depression Scale during pregnancy". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 70 (4): 385–389. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2010.07.008. PMID   21414460.
  25. 1 2 3 Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB (September 2001). "The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure". Journal of General Internal Medicine. 16 (9): 606–13. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x. PMC   1495268 . PMID   11556941.
  26. ↑ Petursdottir Maack, Heidrun; Skalkidou, Alkistis; Sjöholm, Anna; Eurenius-Orre, Karin; Mulic-Lutvica, Ajlana; Wikström, Anna-Karin; Sundström Poromaa, Inger (2019-04-17). "Maternal body mass index moderates antenatal depression effects on infant birthweight". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 6213. Bibcode:2019NatSR...9.6213P. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-42360-1. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   6470129 . PMID   30996270.
  27. ↑ Shivakumar G, Brandon AR, Snell PG, Santiago-Muñoz P, Johnson NL, Trivedi MH, Freeman MP (March 2011). "Antenatal depression: a rationale for studying exercise". Depression and Anxiety. 28 (3): 234–42. doi:10.1002/da.20777. PMC   3079921 . PMID   21394856.
  28. ↑ Li, Caixia; Sun, Xiaohua; Li, Qing; Sun, Qian; Wu, Beibei; Duan, Dongyun (2020-07-02). "Role of psychotherapy on antenatal depression, anxiety, and maternal quality of life". Medicine. 99 (27): e20947. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000020947. ISSN   0025-7974. PMC   7337511 . PMID   32629701.
  29. ↑ "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are tolerated better than tricyclic antidepressants". BMJ. 314 (7081). 1997. doi:10.1136/bmj.314.7081.0e. ISSN   0959-8138. S2CID   220157751.
  30. ↑ Hu, Ying; Wang, Ying; Wen, Shu; Guo, Xiujing; Xu, Liangzhi; Chen, Baohong; Chen, Pengfan; Xu, Xiaoxia; Wang, Yuqiong (2019-11-19). "Association between social and family support and antenatal depression: a hospital-based study in Chengdu, China". BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth. 19 (1): 420. doi: 10.1186/s12884-019-2510-5 . ISSN   1471-2393. PMC   6862749 . PMID   31744468.
  31. ↑ Singla, Daisy R.; Lawson, Andrea; Kohrt, Brandon A.; Jung, James W.; Meng, Zifeng; Ratjen, Clarissa; Zahedi, Nika; Dennis, Cindy-Lee; Patel, Vikram (2021-05-01). "Implementation and Effectiveness of Nonspecialist-Delivered Interventions for Perinatal Mental Health in High-Income Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". JAMA Psychiatry. 78 (5): 498–509. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.4556. ISSN   2168-622X. PMC   7859878 . PMID   33533904.
  32. ↑ Daley, A. J.; Foster, L.; Long, G.; Palmer, C.; Robinson, O.; Walmsley, H.; Ward, R. (2015). "The effectiveness of exercise for the prevention and treatment of antenatal depression: systematic review with meta-analysis". BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology. 122 (1): 57–62. doi:10.1111/1471-0528.12909. ISSN   1471-0528. PMID   24935560. S2CID   42209084.
  33. ↑ Gong, Hong; Ni, Chenxu; Shen, Xiaoliang; Wu, Tengyun; Jiang, Chunlei (2015-02-05). "Yoga for prenatal depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis". BMC Psychiatry. 15: 14. doi: 10.1186/s12888-015-0393-1 . ISSN   1471-244X. PMC   4323231 . PMID   25652267.
  34. ↑ El-Rafie, Mervat M; Khafagy, Ghada M; Gamal, Marwa G (2016-02-24). "Effect of aerobic exercise during pregnancy on antenatal depression". International Journal of Women's Health. 8: 53–57. doi: 10.2147/IJWH.S94112 . ISSN   1179-1411. PMC   4772941 . PMID   26955293.
  35. ↑ "Depression in Pregnancy& Antidepressant Medication Use". www.mhcs.health.nsw.gov.au/. Division of Mental Health St George Hospital and Community Health Services. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 May 2020. Retrieved 13 November 2013.
  36. ↑ Casper RC, Gilles AA, Fleisher BE, Baran J, Enns G, Lazzeroni LC (September 2011). "Length of prenatal exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants: effects on neonatal adaptation and psychomotor development". Psychopharmacology. 217 (2): 211–9. doi:10.1007/s00213-011-2270-z. PMID   21499702. S2CID   24565503.
  37. ↑ Misri S, Kendrick K, Oberlander TF, Norris S, Tomfohr L, Zhang H, Grunau RE (April 2010). "Antenatal depression and anxiety affect postpartum parenting stress: a longitudinal, prospective study". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 55 (4): 222–8. doi: 10.1177/070674371005500405 . PMID   20416145.
  38. ↑ Ghaedrahmati, Maryam; Kazemi, Ashraf; Kheirabadi, Gholamreza; Ebrahimi, Amrollah; Bahrami, Masood (2017-08-09). "Postpartum depression risk factors: A narrative review". Journal of Education and Health Promotion. 6: 60. doi: 10.4103/jehp.jehp_9_16 . ISSN   2277-9531. PMC   5561681 . PMID   28852652.
  39. ↑ Brito, Cynthia Nunes de Oliveira; Alves, Sandra Valongueiro; Ludermir, Ana Bernarda; Araújo, Thália Velho Barreto de (2015). "Postpartum depression among women with unintended pregnancy". Revista de Saude Publica. 49: 33. doi:10.1590/s0034-8910.2015049005257. ISSN   1518-8787. PMC   4544504 . PMID   26083941.
  40. ↑ Gress-Smith JL, Luecken LJ, Lemery-Chalfant K, Howe R (May 2012). "Postpartum depression prevalence and impact on infant health, weight, and sleep in low-income and ethnic minority women and infants". Maternal and Child Health Journal. 16 (4): 887–93. doi:10.1007/s10995-011-0812-y. PMID   21559774. S2CID   574162.
  41. ↑ Stein A, Pearson RM, Goodman SH, Rapa E, Rahman A, McCallum M, Howard LM, Pariante CM (November 2014). "Effects of perinatal mental disorders on the fetus and child". Lancet. 384 (9956): 1800–19. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61277-0. PMID   25455250. S2CID   8388539.
  42. ↑ Bornstein MH, Hahn CS, Haynes OM (May 2011). "Maternal personality, parenting cognitions, and parenting practices". Developmental Psychology. 47 (3): 658–75. doi:10.1037/a0023181. PMC   3174106 . PMID   21443335.
  43. ↑ "Mother's depression linked to depression in offspring". nhs.uk. 2018-10-03. Retrieved 2020-10-29.
  44. ↑ Frazier, Tyralynn; Hogue, Carol J. Rowland; Bonney, Elizabeth A.; Yount, Kathryn M.; Pearce, Brad D. (2018-06-01). "Weathering the storm; a review of pre-pregnancy stress and risk of spontaneous abortion". Psychoneuroendocrinology. 92: 142–154. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.03.001. ISSN   0306-4530. PMID   29628283. S2CID   4712455.
  45. ↑ Johansen, Rie Laurine Rosenthal; Mortensen, Laust Hvas; Andersen, Anne-Marie Nybo; Hansen, Anne Vinkel; Strandberg-Larsen, Katrine (2015). "Maternal Use of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors and Risk of Miscarriage – Assessing Potential Biases". Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology. 29 (1): 72–81. doi:10.1111/ppe.12160. ISSN   1365-3016. PMID   25382157.
  46. 1 2 3 Coburn SS, Luecken LJ, Rystad IA, Lin B, Crnic KA, Gonzales NA (June 2018). "Prenatal Maternal Depressive Symptoms Predict Early Infant Health Concerns". Maternal and Child Health Journal. 22 (6): 786–793. doi:10.1007/s10995-018-2448-7. PMC   7928222 . PMID   29427015. S2CID   3276559.
  47. ↑ Chung EK, McCollum KF, Elo IT, Lee HJ, Culhane JF (June 2004). "Maternal depressive symptoms and infant health practices among low-income women". Pediatrics. 113 (6): e523-9. doi: 10.1542/peds.113.6.e523 . PMID   15173532.
  48. ↑ Stark EL, Shim J, Ross CM, Miller ES (September 2019). "The Association between Positive Antenatal Depression Screening and Breastfeeding Initiation and Continuation". American Journal of Perinatology. 38 (2): s–0039–1695775. doi:10.1055/s-0039-1695775. PMID   31480085. S2CID   201830547.
  49. 1 2 Verma T (2018). "Comments on "Prenatal Depression and Infant Health: The Importance of Inadequately Measured, Unmeasured and Unknown Confounds"". Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine. 40 (6): 592–594. doi: 10.4103/IJPSYM.IJPSYM_306_18 . PMC   6241178 . PMID   30533965.
  50. ↑ O’Brien, Anthony P.; McNeil, Karen A.; Fletcher, Richard; Conrad, Agatha; Wilson, Amanda J.; Jones, Donovan; Chan, Sally W. (July 2017). "New Fathers' Perinatal Depression and Anxiety—Treatment Options: An Integrative Review". American Journal of Men's Health. 11 (4): 863–876. doi:10.1177/1557988316669047. ISSN   1557-9883. PMC   5675308 . PMID   27694550.
  51. ↑ "Dads Can Get Depression During and After Pregnancy, Too". HealthyChildren.org. 17 December 2018. Retrieved 2022-10-19.
  52. ↑ Leach, Liana S.; Poyser, Carmel; Cooklin, Amanda R.; Giallo, Rebecca (2016-01-15). "Prevalence and course of anxiety disorders (and symptom levels) in men across the perinatal period: A systematic review". Journal of Affective Disorders. 190: 675–686. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.09.063. ISSN   1573-2517. PMID   26590515.
  53. 1 2 "Antenatal depression and postnatal depression in men". Raising Children Network. Retrieved 2019-10-24.
  54. ↑ "Dads Can Get Depression During and After Pregnancy, Too". HealthyChildren.org. 17 December 2018. Retrieved 2022-10-19.
  55. ↑ Liu, C; Cnattingius, S; Bergström, M; Östberg, V; Hjern, A (November 2016). "Prenatal parental depression and preterm birth: a national cohort study". BJOG. 123 (12): 1973–1982. doi:10.1111/1471-0528.13891. ISSN   1470-0328. PMC   5096244 . PMID   26786413.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.