Gender disappointment

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A cake for a gender reveal party. Gender disappointment might reveal itself at one of these parties. Gender Reveal Party (7359990748).jpg
A cake for a gender reveal party. Gender disappointment might reveal itself at one of these parties.

Gender disappointment is the feeling of sadness parents experience when the desire for a child of a preferred sex is not met. It can create feelings of shame which cannot always be expressed openly. [1] It is often noticed in cultures where women are viewed as of a lower status and the preferred choice is for a male infant, i.e. son preference. [2] It may result in sex-selective killing, [1] or the neglection of female children. [3]

Contents

Gender disappointment can occur before or after giving birth. It has been questioned whether it can be considered a unique mental illness or whether it should be linked to other mental disorders, like depression (e.g. postpartum depression) or adjustment disorders. Its treatment can be complex since a particular pathway to recovery has not yet been defined. [1] Nonetheless, there are some treatments available that have been shown to be successful.

Theories

A number of theories exist via which gender disappointment is generally explained: the gender discrimination theory, the gender essentialism theory and the parental investment theory.

Gender discrimination theory

This theory suggests that a patriarchal kinship system, prevalent in Asian countries, generates a strong preference for a certain gender, in casu a son. Such system considers sons as "harbingers of prosperity and daughters as liabilities who require significant outlay of resources through their lifetime". [4] In such a society, the underlying pressures to have a male child are vast. [3] They range from social[ citation needed ] and cultural pressures (e.g. only sons will propagate the family name, [5] certain religious rites can only be performed by men [6] ) to economic considerations (e.g. sons have the obligation to take care of the economic situation of their parents in their older days [7] ) and safety concerns.[ citation needed ] Needless to say these factors favour the birth of boys and generate gender disappointment in case the newborn is a girl.

Gender essentialism theory

Gender essentialism is the theory according to which intrinsic qualities are attributed to men and women treating them as of a fixed essence. Often, they are defined in terms of individual biological capacities [8] but they can also be grounded in social stereotypes.

When the parental desire for a child of a specific gender is grounded in such stereotypes (whether descriptive or prescriptive [9] ), gender-related biases can cause and reinforce gender disappointment.

While gender essentialism may play a role in certain cultures, it contradicts with recent views that gender is a complex construct influenced by biological factors and environmental circumstances. [10]

The parental investment theory

In evolutionary theory, parental investment is any expenditure that benefits offspring and can potentially increase its chances of survival. [11] This includes money spendings on essential and non-essential goods, time spendings on activities, and attention and energy spendings. [12] It causes parents to engage in a cost-benefit analysis and to compare spendings between their children. Research shows that for example in countries like India, parents are more likely to allocate resources, such as time and money, to their sons rather than to their daughters resulting in better access to vaccination [13] and healthcare. [14] [15]

Personal factors

Gender disappointment cannot only be explained by reference to the general theories mentioned above. Several personal factors can contribute to being more or less prone to feelings of disappointment in relation to gender:

  1. The parent's age: Parents between the age of 19 and 25 are more inclined to experience gender disappointment. As people get older, their desire for having a child exceeds the desire for having a child of a specific gender due to the increased chance of infertility. [3]
  2. The parent's gender: [3] Females experience gender disappointment more given the volatility of their hormonal levels which can also result in other mental disorders such as postpartum depression. [1] [16]
  3. The parent's personality: A clear link has been established between gender disappointment and the characteristics of a parent's personality. Tied back to the psychological theory of The Big Five Personality traits, research suggests that Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Conscientiousness are moderators for gender disappointment. For example, extroverted people are sociable and will expect a gender that will bring them more public attention. They will be disappointed if this is not the case. Conscientious individuals, for instance, like to plan and think ahead: this may result in disappointment when the unexpected gender is born. [3]

Solutions and treatment

Dealing with gender disappointment can take place on a personal level and via professional help. Ultimately, long-term solutions should be sought on a social level.

Personal level

Opening up, in group or one-to-one, and sharing the negative emotions resulting from gender disappointment, can help reduce the feelings of shame. [1] [3] [17]

Professional help

Professional treatment in the context of gender disappointment generally exists in counseling which helps parents to understand that the sex of their offspring does not determine their parenting experience. It faces some unique challenges due to the level of subjectivity that comes with any mental disorder on the one hand and the existing social stigma on the other hand. As a result, treatments for gender disappointment are not always easily accessible. [1]

Social level

Most studies indicate that the long-term solutions are not to be found on an individual level but on a social level. They highlight that sexism should be recognised within societies as a social disorder and that sexist social structures should be dismantled. [1]

See also

Related Research Articles

Infanticide is the intentional killing of infants or offspring. Infanticide was a widespread practice throughout human history that was mainly used to dispose of unwanted children, its main purpose being the prevention of resources being spent on weak or disabled offspring. Unwanted infants were usually abandoned to die of exposure, but in some societies they were deliberately killed. Infanticide is generally illegal, but in some places the practice is tolerated, or the prohibition is not strictly enforced.

Gender identity is the personal sense of one's own gender. Gender identity can correlate with a person's assigned sex or can differ from it. In most individuals, the various biological determinants of sex are congruent and consistent with the individual's gender identity. Gender expression typically reflects a person's gender identity, but this is not always the case. While a person may express behaviors, attitudes, and appearances consistent with a particular gender role, such expression may not necessarily reflect their gender identity. The term gender identity was coined by psychiatry professor Robert J. Stoller in 1964 and popularized by psychologist John Money.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Postpartum depression</span> Mood disorder experienced after childbirth

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Sex differences in psychology are differences in the mental functions and behaviors of the sexes and are due to a complex interplay of biological, developmental, and cultural factors. Differences have been found in a variety of fields such as mental health, cognitive abilities, personality, emotion, sexuality, friendship, and tendency towards aggression. Such variation may be innate, learned, or both. Modern research attempts to distinguish between these causes and to analyze any ethical concerns raised. Since behavior is a result of interactions between nature and nurture, researchers are interested in investigating how biology and environment interact to produce such differences, although this is often not possible.

Child psychopathology refers to the scientific study of mental disorders in children and adolescents. Oppositional defiant disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and autism spectrum disorder are examples of psychopathology that are typically first diagnosed during childhood. Mental health providers who work with children and adolescents are informed by research in developmental psychology, clinical child psychology, and family systems. Lists of child and adult mental disorders can be found in the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th Edition (ICD-10), published by the World Health Organization (WHO) and in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). In addition, the Diagnostic Classification of Mental Health and Developmental Disorders of Infancy and Early Childhood is used in assessing mental health and developmental disorders in children up to age five.

Sex is correlated with the prevalence of certain mental disorders, including depression, anxiety and somatic complaints. For example, women are more likely to be diagnosed with major depression, while men are more likely to be diagnosed with substance abuse and antisocial personality disorder. There are no marked gender differences in the diagnosis rates of disorders like schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Men are at risk to suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to past violent experiences such as accidents, wars and witnessing death, and women are diagnosed with PTSD at higher rates due to experiences with sexual assault, rape and child sexual abuse. Nonbinary or genderqueer identification describes people who do not identify as either male or female. People who identify as nonbinary or gender queer show increased risk for depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder. People who identify as transgender demonstrate increased risk for depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder.

Childhood gender nonconformity (CGN) is a phenomenon in which prepubescent children do not conform to expected gender-related sociological or psychological patterns, or identify with the opposite sex/gender. Typical behavior among those who exhibit the phenomenon includes but is not limited to a propensity to cross-dress, refusal to take part in activities conventionally thought suitable for the gender and the exclusive choice of play-mates of the opposite sex.

Son preference is the ancient and cross-cultural human preference for male offspring. Son preference has been demonstrated across all social classes, from "succession laws in royal families to land inheritance in peasant families." Sons are considered both a status symbol and a genetic and economic competitive advantage.

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Childbirth-related post-traumatic stress disorder is a psychological disorder that can develop in women who have recently given birth. This disorder can also affect men or partners who have observed a difficult birth. Its symptoms are not distinct from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). It may also be called post-traumatic stress disorder following childbirth (PTSD-FC).

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Antenatal depression, also known as prenatal or perinatal depression, is a form of clinical depression that can affect a woman during pregnancy, and can be a precursor to postpartum depression if not properly treated. It is estimated that 7% to 20% of pregnant women are affected by this condition. Any form of prenatal stress felt by the mother can have negative effects on various aspects of fetal development, which can cause harm to the mother and child. Even after birth, a child born from a depressed or stressed mother feels the affects. The child is less active and can also experience emotional distress. Antenatal depression can be caused by the stress and worry that pregnancy can bring, but at a more severe level. Other triggers include unplanned pregnancy, difficulty becoming pregnant, history of abuse, and economic or family situations.

Gender roles are culturally influenced stereotypes which create expectations for appropriate behavior for males and females. An understanding of these roles is evident in children as young as age four. Children between 3 and 6 months can form distinctions between male and female faces. By ten months, infants can associate certain objects with females and males, like a hammer with males or scarf with females. Gender roles are influenced by the media, family, the environment, and society. In addition to biological maturation, children develop within a set of gender-specific social and behavioral norms embedded in family structure, natural play patterns, close friendships, and the teeming social jungle of school life. The gender roles encountered in childhood play a large part in shaping an individual's self-concept and influence the way an individual forms relationships later on in life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human mating strategies</span> Courtship behavior of humans

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Female infanticide in India has a history spanning centuries. Poverty, the dowry system, births to unmarried women, deformed infants, famine, lack of support services, and maternal illnesses such as postpartum depression are among the causes that have been proposed to explain the phenomenon of female infanticide in India.

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Post-adoption depression is shown though symptoms of depression in the adoptive mother or father, generally seen from one month after adoption, and is experienced by anywhere from 10% to 32% of adoptive parents. The symptoms of post-adoption depression are common to symptoms of depression, and include changes in sleeping pattern and appetite, feelings of hopelessness, fatigue, problems with concentration and restlessness, as well as suicidal thoughts. These symptoms are also similar to those of postpartum depression, which is a related syndrome. Postpartum depression, however, involves hormonal changes in pregnant woman, which are not present in women suffering from post-adoption depression. Despite this difference, there are still significant changes that new parents go through, even when the child is not biologically their own. These changes can have significant impacts on mental health. Post-adoption depression can also negatively impact the child.

Paternal depression is a psychological disorder derived from parental depression. Paternal depression affects the mood of men; fathers and caregivers in particular. 'Father' may refer to the biological father, foster parent, social parent, step-parent or simply the carer of the child. This mood disorder exhibits symptoms similar to postpartum depression (PPD) including anxiety, insomnia, irritability, consistent breakdown and crying episodes, and low energy. This may negatively impact family relationships and the upbringing of children. Parents diagnosed with parental depression often experience increased stress and anxiety levels during early pregnancy, labor and postpartum. Those with parental depression may have developed it early on but some are diagnosed later on from when the child is a toddler up until a young adult.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breastfeeding and mental health</span>

Breastfeeding and mental health is the relationship between postpartum breastfeeding and the mother's and child's mental health. Research indicates breastfeeding may have positive effects on the mother's and child's mental health, though there have been conflicting studies that question the correlation and causation of breastfeeding and maternal mental health. Possible benefits include improved mood and stress levels in the mother, lower risk of postpartum depression, enhanced social emotional development in the child, stronger mother-child bonding and more. Given the benefits of breastfeeding, the World Health Organization (WHO), the European Commission for Public Health (ECPH) and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) suggest exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life. Despite these suggestions, estimates indicate 70% of mothers breastfeed their child after birth and 13.5% of infants in the United States are exclusively breastfed. Breastfeeding promotion and support for mothers who are experiencing difficulties or early cessation in breastfeeding is considered a health priority.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hendl, Tereza; Browne, Tamara Kayali (June 2020). "Is 'gender disappointment' a unique mental illness?". Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy. 23 (2): 281–294. doi:10.1007/s11019-019-09933-3. ISSN   1572-8633. PMID   31865528. S2CID   209447227.
  2. ↑ Supraja, T.A.; Varghese, Meiya; Desai, Geetha; Chandra, Prabha S (2016). "The relationship of gender preference to anxiety, stress and family violence among pregnant women in urban India". International Journal of Culture and Mental Health. 9 (4): 356–363. doi:10.1080/17542863.2016.1205114. ISSN   1754-2863. S2CID   147998678.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Theerthaana, P.; Sheik Manzoor, A. K. (October 2019). "Gender disappointment in India: SEM modeling approach". Archives of Women's Mental Health. 22 (5): 593–603. doi:10.1007/s00737-018-0929-8. ISSN   1435-1102. PMID   30488115. S2CID   53807691.
  4. ↑ Rathore, Udayan; Das, Upasak (2 January 2022). "Health Consequences of Patriarchal Kinship System for the Elderly: Evidence from India". The Journal of Development Studies. 58 (1): 145–163. doi:10.1080/00220388.2021.1939863. ISSN   0022-0388. S2CID   237689056.
  5. ↑ Kansal, R.; Maroof, Khan Amir; Bansal, R.; Parashar, P. (1 October 2010). "A hospital-based study on knowledge, attitude and practice of pregnant women on gender preference, prenatal sex determination and female feticide". Indian Journal of Public Health. 54 (4): 209–212. doi: 10.4103/0019-557X.77263 . ISSN   0019-557X. PMID   21372370.
  6. ↑ Pande, Rohini P.; Astone, Nan Marie (2007). "Explaining Son Preference in Rural India: The Independent Role of Structural versus Individual Factors". Population Research and Policy Review. 26 (1): 1–29. doi:10.1007/s11113-006-9017-2. JSTOR   40230884. S2CID   143798268.
  7. ↑ Vadera, Bn; Joshi, Uk; Unadakat, Sv; Yadav, Bs; Yadav, Sudha (October 2007). "Study on knowledge, attitude and practices regarding gender preference and female feticide among pregnant women". Indian Journal of Community Medicine. 32 (4): 300–301. doi: 10.4103/0970-0218.37703 . ISSN   0970-0218 – via ResearchGate.
  8. ↑ Ching, Boby Ho-Hong; Xu, Jason Teng; Chen, Tiffany Ting; Kong, Kenneth Hong Cheng (October 2020). "Gender Essentialism, Authoritarianism, Social Dominance Orientation, and Filial Piety as Predictors for Transprejudice in Chinese People". Sex Roles. 83 (7): 426–441. doi:10.1007/s11199-020-01123-3. S2CID   255004194.
  9. ↑ Meyer, Meredith; Gelman, Susan A. (November 2016). "Gender Essentialism in Children and Parents: Implications for the Development of Gender Stereotyping and Gender-Typed Preferences". Sex Roles. 75 (9): 409–421. doi:10.1007/s11199-016-0646-6. S2CID   255016032.
  10. ↑ Burri, Andrea; Cherkas, Lynn; Spector, Timothy; Rahman, Qazi (7 July 2011). "Genetic and Environmental Influences on Female Sexual Orientation, Childhood Gender Typicality and Adult Gender Identity". PLOS ONE. 6 (7): e21982. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...621982B. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0021982 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   3131304 . PMID   21760939.
  11. ↑ Pazhoohi, Farid (31 August 2022). "Parental Investment Theory". In Shackelford, Todd K. (ed.). The Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Sexual Psychology (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 137–159. doi:10.1017/9781108943529.010. ISBN   978-1-108-94352-9.
  12. ↑ Gauthier, Anne H.; de Jong, Petra W. (17 December 2021). "Costly children: the motivations for parental investment in children in a low fertility context". Genus. 77 (1): 6. doi: 10.1186/s41118-020-00111-5 . ISSN   2035-5556. PMC   7889673 . PMID   33678812.
  13. ↑ Borooah, Vani K. (1 May 2004). "Gender bias among children in India in their diet and immunisation against disease" (PDF). Social Science & Medicine. 58 (9): 1719–1731. doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(03)00342-3. PMID   14990373.
  14. ↑ Ganatra, B; Hirve, S (1994). "Male bias in health care utilization for under-fives in a rural community in western India". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 72 (1): 101–4. PMC   2486511 . PMID   8131244.
  15. ↑ Yount, Kathryn M. (2001). "Excess mortality of girls in the Middle East in the 1970s and 1980s: Patterns, correlates and gaps in research". Population Studies. 55 (3): 291–308. doi:10.1080/00324720127703. PMID   11778621. S2CID   32242407.
  16. ↑ Nguyen, Amanda J.; Hoyer, Elisabeth; Rajhans, Purva; Strathearn, Lane; Kim, Sohye (September 2019). "A tumultuous transition to motherhood: Altered brain and hormonal responses in mothers with postpartum depression". Journal of Neuroendocrinology. 31 (9): e12794. doi:10.1111/jne.12794. PMID   31520440. S2CID   202572266.
  17. ↑ Worrall, Hugh; Schweizer, Richard; Marks, Ellen; Yuan, Lin; Lloyd, Chris; Ramjan, Rob (9 April 2018). "The effectiveness of support groups: a literature review". Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health - Papers: Part A. 22 (2): 85–93. doi: 10.1108/MHSI-12-2017-0055 .
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