Complications of pregnancy

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Complications of pregnancy
810 women die every day from preventable causes related to pregnancy and childbirth, 94%25 occur in low and lower middle-income countries.png
810 women die every day from preventable causes related to pregnancy and childbirth. 94% occur in low and lower middle-income countries.
Specialty Obstetrics
Complications Numerous biological and environmental complications
Risk factors Numerous biological and environmental conditions

Complications of pregnancy are health problems that are related to, or arise during pregnancy. Complications that occur primarily during childbirth are termed obstetric labor complications, and problems that occur primarily after childbirth are termed puerperal disorders. While some complications improve or are fully resolved after pregnancy, some may lead to lasting effects, morbidity, or in the most severe cases, maternal or fetal mortality.

Contents

Common complications of pregnancy include anemia, gestational diabetes, infections, gestational hypertension and pre-eclampsia. [1] Presence of these types of complications can have implications on monitoring lab work, imaging, and medical management during pregnancy. [1]

Severe complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium are present in 1.6% of mothers in the US, [2] and in 1.5% of mothers in Canada. [3] In the immediate postpartum period (puerperium), 87% to 94% of women report at least one health problem. [4] [5] Long-term health problems (persisting after six months postpartum) are reported by 31% of women. [6]

In 2016, complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium resulted globally in 230,600 deaths, down from 377,000 deaths in 1990. The most common causes of maternal mortality are maternal bleeding, postpartum infections including sepsis, hypertensive diseases of pregnancy, obstructed labor, and unsafe abortion. [7] [8]

Complications of pregnancy can sometimes arise from abnormally severe presentations of symptoms and discomforts of pregnancy, which usually do not significantly interfere with activities of daily living or pose any significant threat to the health of the birthing person or fetus. For example, morning sickness is a fairly common mild symptom of pregnancy that generally resolves in the second trimester, but hyperemesis gravidarum is a severe form of this symptom that sometimes requires medical intervention to prevent electrolyte imbalances from severe vomiting.

Maternal problems

The following problems originate in the mother, however, they may have serious consequences for the fetus as well.

Gestational diabetes

Gestational diabetes is when a woman, without a previous diagnosis of diabetes, develops high blood sugar levels during pregnancy. [9] [10] There are many non-modifiable and modifiable risk factors that lead to the devopment of this complication. Non-modifiable risk factors include a family history of diabetes, advanced maternal age, and ethnicity. Modifiable risk factors include maternal obesity. [10] There is an elevated demand for insulin during pregnancy which leads to increased insulin production from pancreatic beta cells. The elevated demand is a result of increased maternal calorie intake and weight gain, and increased production of prolactin and growth hormone. Gestational diabetes increases risk for further maternal and fetal complications such as development of pre-eclampsia, need for cesarean delivery, preterm delivery, polyhydramnios, macrosomia, shoulder dystocia, fetal hypoglycemia, hyperbilirubinemia, and admission into the neonatal intensive care unit. The increased risk is correlated with the how well the gestational diabetes is controlled during pregnancy with poor control associated with worsened outcomes. A multidisciplinary approach is used to treat gestational diabetes and involves monitoring of blood-glucose levels, nutritional and dietary modifications, lifestyle changes such as increasing physical activity, maternal weight management, and medication such as insulin. [10]

Hyperemesis gravidarum

Hyperemesis gravidarum is the presence of severe and persistent vomiting, causing dehydration and weight loss. It is similar although more severe than the common morning sickness. [11] [12] It is estimated to affect 0.3–3.6% of pregnant women and is the greatest contributor to hospitalizations under 20 weeks of gestation. Most often, nausea and vomiting symptoms during pregnancy resolve in the first trimester, however, some continue to experience symptoms. Hyperemesis gravidarum is diagnosed by the following criteria: greater than 3 vomiting episodes per day, ketonuria, and weight loss of more than 3 kg or 5% of body weight. There are several non-modifiable and modifiable risk factors that predispose women to development of this condition such as female fetus, psychiatric illness history, high or low BMI pre-pregnancy, young age, African American or Asian ethnicity, type I diabetes, multiple pregnancies, and history of pregnancy affected by hyperemesis gravidarum. There are currently no known mechanisms for the cause of this condition. This complication can cause nutritional deficiency, low pregnancy weight gain, dehydration, and vitamin, electrolyte, and acid-based disturbances in the mother. It has been shown to cause low birth weight, small gestational age, preterm birth, and poor APGAR scores in the infant. Treatments for this condition focus on preventing harm to the fetus while improving symptoms and commonly include fluid replacement and consumption of small, frequent, bland meals. First-line treatments include ginger and acupuncture. Second-line treatments include vitamin B6 +/- doxylamine, antihistamines, dopamine antagonists, and serotonin antagonists. Third-line treatments include corticosteroids, transdermal clonidine, and gabapentin. Treatments chosen are dependent on severity of symptoms and response to therapies. [13]

Pelvic girdle pain

Pelvic girdle pain (PGP) disorder is pain in the area between the posterior iliac crest and gluteal fold beginning peri or postpartum caused by instability and limitation of mobility. It is associated with pubic symphysis pain and sometimes radiation of pain down the hips and thighs. For most pregnant individuals, PGP resolves within three months following delivery, but for some it can last for years, resulting in a reduced tolerance for weight bearing activities. PGP affects around 45% of individuals during pregnancy: 25% report serious pain and 8% are severely disabled. [14] [15] Risk factors for complication development include multiparity, increased BMI, physically strenuous work, smoking, distress, history of back and pelvic trauma, and previous history of pelvic and lower back pain. This syndrome results from a growing uterus during pregnancy that causes increased stress on the lumbar and pelvic regions of the mother, thereby, resulting in postural changes and reduced lumbopelvic muscle strength leading to pelvic instability and pain. It is unclear whether specific hormones in pregnancy are associated with complication development. PGP can result in poor quality of life, predisposition to chronic pain syndrome, extended leave from work, and psychosocial distress. Many treatment options are available based on symptom severity. Non-invasive treatment options include activity modification, pelvic support garments, analgesia with or without short periods of bed rest, and physiotherapy to increase strength of gluteal and adductor muscles reducing stress on the lumbar spine. Invasive surgical management is considered a last-line treatment if all other treatment modalities have failed and symptoms are severe. [15]

High blood pressure

Potential severe hypertensive states of pregnancy are mainly:

Women who have chronic hypertension before their pregnancy are at increased risk of complications such as premature birth, low birthweight or stillbirth. [22] Women who have high blood pressure and had complications in their pregnancy have three times the risk of developing cardiovascular disease compared to women with normal blood pressure who had no complications in pregnancy. Monitoring pregnant women's blood pressure can help prevent both complications and future cardiovascular diseases. [23] [24]

Venous thromboembolism

Deep vein thrombosis (DVT), a form of venous thromboembolism (VTE), has an incidence of 0.5 to 7 per 1,000 pregnancies, and is the second most common cause of maternal death in developed countries after bleeding. [25]

Anemia

Levels of hemoglobin are lower in the third trimesters. According to the United Nations (UN) estimates, approximately half of pregnant individuals develop anemia worldwide. Anemia prevalences during pregnancy differed from 18% in developed countries to 75% in South Asia. [26]

Treatment varies due to the severity of the anaemia, and can be used by increasing iron containing foods, oral iron tablets or by the use of parenteral iron. [9]

Infection

A pregnant woman is more susceptible to certain infections. This increased risk is caused by an increased immune tolerance in pregnancy to prevent an immune reaction against the fetus, as well as secondary to maternal physiological changes including a decrease in respiratory volumes and urinary stasis due to an enlarging uterus. [27] Pregnant individuals are more severely affected by, for example, influenza, hepatitis E, herpes simplex and malaria. [27] The evidence is more limited for coccidioidomycosis, measles, smallpox, and varicella. [27] Mastitis, or inflammation of the breast, occurs in 20% of lactating individuals. [28]

Some infections are vertically transmissible, meaning that they can affect the child as well. [29]

Peripartum cardiomyopathy

Peripartum cardiomyopathy is a heart failure caused by a decrease in left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) to <45% which occurs towards the end of pregnancy or a few months postpartum. Symptoms include shortness of breath in various positions and/or with exertion, fatigue, pedal edema, and chest tightness. Risk factors associated with the development of this complication include maternal age over 30 years, multi gestational pregnancy, family history of cardiomyopathy, previous diagnosis of cardiomyopathy, pre-eclampsia, hypertension, and African ancestry. The pathogenesis of peripartum cardiomyopathy is not yet known, however, it is suggested that multifactorial potential causes could include autoimmune processes, viral myocarditis, nutritional deficiencies, and maximal cardiovascular changes during which increase cardiac preload. Peripartum cardiomyopathy can lead to many complications such as cardiopulmonary arrest, pulmonary edema, thromboembolisms, brain injury, and death. Treatment of this condition is very similar to treatment of non-gravid heart failure patients, however, safety of the fetus must be prioritized. For example, for anticoagulation due to increased risk for thromboembolism, low molecular weight heparin which is safe for use during pregnancy is used instead of warfarin which crosses the placenta. [30]

Hypothyroidism

Hypothyroidism (commonly caused by Hashimoto's disease) is an autoimmune disease that affects the thyroid by causing low thyroid hormone levels. Symptoms of hypothyroidism can include low energy, cold intolerance, muscle cramps, constipation, and memory and concentration problems. [31] It is diagnosed by the presence of elevated levels of thyroid stimulation hormone or TSH. Patients with elevated TSH and decreased levels of free thyroxine or T4 are considered to have overt hypothyroidism. While those with elevated TSH and normal levels of free T4 are considered to have subclinical hypothyroidism. [32] Risk factors for developing hypothyroidism during pregnancy include iodine deficiency, history of thyroid disease, visible goiter, hypothyroidism symptoms, family history of thyroid disease, history of type 1 diabetes or autoimmune conditions, and history of infertility or fetal loss. Various hormones during pregnancy affect the thyroid and increase thyroid hormone demand. For example, during pregnancy, there is increased urinary iodine excretion as well as increased thyroxine binding globulin and thyroid hormone degradation which all increase thyroid hormone demands. [33] This condition can have a profound effect during pregnancy on the mother and fetus. The infant may be seriously affected and have a variety of birth defects. Complications in the mother and fetus can include pre-eclampsia, anemia, miscarriage, low birth weight, still birth, congestive heart failure, impaired neurointellectual development, and if severe, congenital iodine deficiency syndrome. [31] [33] This complication is treated by iodine supplementation, levothyroxine which is a form of thyroid hormone replacement, and close monitoring of thyroid function. [33]

Fetal and placental problems

The following problems occur in the fetus or placenta, but may have serious consequences on the mother as well.

Ectopic pregnancy

Ectopic pregnancy is implantation of the embryo outside the uterus

Miscarriage

Miscarriage is the loss of a pregnancy prior to 20 weeks. [36] [37] In the UK, miscarriage is defined as the loss of a pregnancy during the first 23 weeks. [38]

Approximately 80% of pregnancy loss occurs in the first trimester, with a decrease in risk after 12 weeks gestation. Spontaneous abortions can be further categorized into complete, inevitable, missed, and threatened abortions:[ citation needed ]

Stillbirth

Stillbirth is defined as fetal loss or death after 20 weeks gestation. Early stillbirth is between 20 and 27 weeks gestation, while late stillbirth is between 28 and 36 weeks gestation. A term stillbirth is when the fetus dies 37 weeks and above. [39]

Placental abruption

Placental abruption defined as the separation of the placenta from the uterus prior to delivery, is a major cause of third trimester vaginal bleeding and complicates about 1% of pregnancies. [9] [41]

Placenta previa

Placenta previa is a condition that occurs when the placenta fully or partially covers the cervix. [9] Placenta previa can be further categorized into complete previa, partial previa, marginal previa, and low-lying placenta, depending on the degree to which the placenta covers the internal cervical os. Placenta previa is diagnosed by ultrasound, either during a routine examination or following an episode of abnormal vaginal bleeding. Most diagnosis of placenta previa occurs during the second-trimester.[ citation needed ]

Placenta accreta

Placenta accreta is an abnormal adherence of the placenta to the uterine wall. [43] Specifically, placenta accreta involves abnormal adherence of the placental trophoblast to the uterine myometrium. [44]

Placenta accreta risk factors include placenta previa, abnormally elevated second-trimester AFP and free β-hCG levels, and advanced gestational parent age, specifically over the age of 35. [45] Furthermore, prior cesarean delivery is one of the most common risk factors for placenta accreta, due to the presence of a uterine scar leading to abnormal decidualization of the placenta. [46]

Due to abnormal adherence of the placenta to the uterine wall, cesarean delivery is often indicated, as well as cesarean hysterectomy. [44]

Multiple pregnancies

Multiple births may become monochorionic, sharing the same chorion, with resultant risk of twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome. Monochorionic multiples may even become monoamniotic, sharing the same amniotic sac, resulting in risk of umbilical cord compression and entanglement. In very rare cases, there may be conjoined twins, possibly impairing function of internal organs.[ citation needed ]

Mother-to-child transmission

Since the embryo and fetus have little or no immune function, they depend on the immune function of their mother. Several pathogens can cross the placenta and cause (perinatal) infection. Often microorganisms that produce minor illness in the mother are very dangerous for the developing embryo or fetus. This can result in spontaneous abortion or major developmental disorders. For many infections, the baby is more at risk at particular stages of pregnancy. Problems related to perinatal infection are not always directly noticeable.[ citation needed ]

The term TORCH complex refers to a set of several different infections that may be caused by transplacental infection:

Babies can also become infected by their mother during birth. During birth, babies are exposed to maternal blood and body fluids without the placental barrier intervening and to the maternal genital tract. Because of this, blood-borne microorganisms (hepatitis B, HIV), organisms associated with sexually transmitted disease (e.g., gonorrhoea and chlamydia), and normal fauna of the genito-urinary tract (e.g., Candida) are among those commonly seen in infection of newborns.

General risk factors

Factors increasing the risk (to either the pregnant individual, the fetus/es, or both) of pregnancy complications beyond the normal level of risk may be present in the pregnant individual's medical profile either before they become pregnant or during the pregnancy. [47] These pre-existing factors may related to the individual's genetics, physical or mental health, their environment and social issues, or a combination of those. [48]

Biological

Some common biological risk factors include:

Environmental

Some common environmental risk factors during pregnancy include:

High-risk pregnancy

Some disorders and conditions can mean that pregnancy is considered high-risk (about 6-8% of pregnancies in the USA) and in extreme cases may be contraindicated. High-risk pregnancies are the main focus of doctors specialising in maternal-fetal medicine. Serious pre-existing disorders which can reduce a woman's physical ability to survive pregnancy include a range of congenital defects (that is, conditions with which the woman herself was born, for example, those of the heart or reproductive organs, some of which are listed above) and diseases acquired at any time during the woman's life.

Absolute and relative incidence of venous thromboembolism (VTE) during pregnancy and the postpartum period
Absolute incidence of first VTE per 10,000 person–years during pregnancy and the postpartum period
Swedish data ASwedish data BEnglish dataDanish data
Time periodNRate (95% CI)NRate (95% CI)NRate (95% CI)NRate (95% CI)
Outside pregnancy11054.2 (4.0–4.4)10153.8 (?)14803.2 (3.0–3.3)28953.6 (3.4–3.7)
Antepartum99520.5 (19.2–21.8)69014.2 (13.2–15.3)1569.9 (8.5–11.6)49110.7 (9.7–11.6)
  Trimester 120713.6 (11.8–15.5)17211.3 (9.7–13.1)234.6 (3.1–7.0)614.1 (3.2–5.2)
  Trimester 227517.4 (15.4–19.6)17811.2 (9.7–13.0)305.8 (4.1–8.3)755.7 (4.6–7.2)
  Trimester 351329.2 (26.8–31.9)34019.4 (17.4–21.6)10318.2 (15.0–22.1)35519.7 (17.7–21.9)
Around delivery115154.6 (128.8–185.6)79106.1 (85.1–132.3)34142.8 (102.0–199.8)
–
Postpartum64942.3 (39.2–45.7)50933.1 (30.4–36.1)13527.4 (23.1–32.4)21817.5 (15.3–20.0)
  Early postpartum58475.4 (69.6–81.8)46059.3 (54.1–65.0)17746.8 (39.1–56.1)19930.4 (26.4–35.0)
  Late postpartum658.5 (7.0–10.9)496.4 (4.9–8.5)187.3 (4.6–11.6)3193.2 (1.9–5.0)
Incidence rate ratios (IRRs) of first VTE during pregnancy and the postpartum period
Swedish data ASwedish data BEnglish dataDanish data
Time periodIRR* (95% CI)IRR* (95% CI)IRR (95% CI)†IRR (95% CI)†
Outside pregnancy
Reference (i.e., 1.00)
Antepartum5.08 (4.66–5.54)3.80 (3.44–4.19)3.10 (2.63–3.66)2.95 (2.68–3.25)
  Trimester 13.42 (2.95–3.98)3.04 (2.58–3.56)1.46 (0.96–2.20)1.12 (0.86–1.45)
  Trimester 24.31 (3.78–4.93)3.01 (2.56–3.53)1.82 (1.27–2.62)1.58 (1.24–1.99)
  Trimester 37.14 (6.43–7.94)5.12 (4.53–5.80)5.69 (4.66–6.95)5.48 (4.89–6.12)
Around delivery37.5 (30.9–44.45)27.97 (22.24–35.17)44.5 (31.68–62.54)
–
Postpartum10.21 (9.27–11.25)8.72 (7.83–9.70)8.54 (7.16–10.19)4.85 (4.21–5.57)
  Early postpartum19.27 (16.53–20.21)15.62 (14.00–17.45)14.61 (12.10–17.67)8.44 (7.27–9.75)
  Late postpartum2.06 (1.60–2.64)1.69 (1.26–2.25)2.29 (1.44–3.65)0.89 (0.53–1.39)
Notes: Swedish data A = Using any code for VTE regardless of confirmation. Swedish data B = Using only algorithm-confirmed VTE. Early postpartum = First 6 weeks after delivery. Late postpartum = More than 6 weeks after delivery. * = Adjusted for age and calendar year. † = Unadjusted ratio calculated based on the data provided. Source: [62]

List of complications (complete)

Obstetric complications are those complications that develop during pregnancy. A woman may develop an infection, syndrome or complication that is not unique to pregnancy and that may have existed before pregnancy. Pregnancy often is complicated by preexisting and concurrent conditions. Though these pre-existing and concurrent conditions may have great impact on pregnancy, they are not included in the following list.

See also

Related Research Articles

Obstetrics is the field of study concentrated on pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period. As a medical specialty, obstetrics is combined with gynecology under the discipline known as obstetrics and gynecology (OB/GYN), which is a surgical field.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stillbirth</span> Death of a fetus before or during delivery, resulting in delivery of a dead baby

Stillbirth is typically defined as fetal death at or after 20 or 28 weeks of pregnancy, depending on the source. It results in a baby born without signs of life. A stillbirth can often result in the feeling of guilt or grief in the mother. The term is in contrast to miscarriage, which is an early pregnancy loss, and sudden infant death syndrome, where the baby dies a short time after being born alive.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eclampsia</span> Pre-eclampsia characterized by the presence of seizures

Eclampsia is the onset of seizures (convulsions) in a woman with pre-eclampsia. Pre-eclampsia is a hypertensive disorder of pregnancy that presents with three main features: new onset of high blood pressure, large amounts of protein in the urine or other organ dysfunction, and edema. If left untreated, pre-eclampsia can result in long-term consequences for the mother, namely increased risk of cardiovascular diseases and associated complications. In more severe cases, it may be fatal for both the mother and the fetus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pre-eclampsia</span> Hypertension occurring during pregnancy

Pre-eclampsia is a multi-system disorder specific to pregnancy, characterized by the onset of high blood pressure and often a significant amount of protein in the urine. When it arises, the condition begins after 20 weeks of pregnancy. In severe cases of the disease there may be red blood cell breakdown, a low blood platelet count, impaired liver function, kidney dysfunction, swelling, shortness of breath due to fluid in the lungs, or visual disturbances. Pre-eclampsia increases the risk of undesirable as well as lethal outcomes for both the mother and the fetus including preterm labor. If left untreated, it may result in seizures at which point it is known as eclampsia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Placenta praevia</span> Medical condition

Placenta praevia is when the placenta attaches inside the uterus but in a position near or over the cervical opening. Symptoms include vaginal bleeding in the second half of pregnancy. The bleeding is bright red and tends not to be associated with pain. Complications may include placenta accreta, dangerously low blood pressure, or bleeding after delivery. Complications for the baby may include fetal growth restriction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gestational hypertension</span> Medical condition

Gestational hypertension or pregnancy-induced hypertension (PIH) is the development of new hypertension in a pregnant woman after 20 weeks' gestation without the presence of protein in the urine or other signs of pre-eclampsia. Gestational hypertension is defined as having a blood pressure greater than 140/90 on two occasions at least 6 hours apart.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Placental abruption</span> Medical condition

Placental abruption is when the placenta separates early from the uterus, in other words separates before childbirth. It occurs most commonly around 25 weeks of pregnancy. Symptoms may include vaginal bleeding, lower abdominal pain, and dangerously low blood pressure. Complications for the mother can include disseminated intravascular coagulopathy and kidney failure. Complications for the baby can include fetal distress, low birthweight, preterm delivery, and stillbirth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intrauterine hypoxia</span> Medical condition when the fetus is deprived of sufficient oxygen

Intrauterine hypoxia occurs when the fetus is deprived of an adequate supply of oxygen. It may be due to a variety of reasons such as prolapse or occlusion of the umbilical cord, placental infarction, maternal diabetes and maternal smoking. Intrauterine growth restriction may cause or be the result of hypoxia. Intrauterine hypoxia can cause cellular damage that occurs within the central nervous system. This results in an increased mortality rate, including an increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Oxygen deprivation in the fetus and neonate have been implicated as either a primary or as a contributing risk factor in numerous neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders such as epilepsy, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, eating disorders and cerebral palsy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Placenta accreta spectrum</span> Medical condition

Placenta accreta occurs when all or part of the placenta attaches abnormally to the myometrium. Three grades of abnormal placental attachment are defined according to the depth of attachment and invasion into the muscular layers of the uterus:

  1. Accreta – chorionic villi attached to the myometrium, rather than being restricted within the decidua basalis.
  2. Increta – chorionic villi invaded into the myometrium.
  3. Percreta – chorionic villi invaded through the perimetrium.
<span class="mw-page-title-main">Velamentous cord insertion</span> Velamentous placenta

Velamentous cord insertion is a complication of pregnancy where the umbilical cord is inserted in the fetal membranes. It is a major cause of antepartum hemorrhage that leads to loss of fetal blood and associated with high perinatal mortality. In normal pregnancies, the umbilical cord inserts into the middle of the placental mass and is completely encased by the amniotic sac. The vessels are hence normally protected by Wharton's jelly, which prevents rupture during pregnancy and labor. In velamentous cord insertion, the vessels of the umbilical cord are improperly inserted in the chorioamniotic membrane, and hence the vessels traverse between the amnion and the chorion towards the placenta. Without Wharton's jelly protecting the vessels, the exposed vessels are susceptible to compression and rupture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Placental disease</span> Medical condition

A placental disease is any disease, disorder, or pathology of the placenta.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Circumvallate placenta</span> Medical condition

Circumvallate placenta is a rare condition affecting about 1-2% of pregnancies, in which the amnion and chorion fetal membranes essentially "double back" on the fetal side around the edges of the placenta. After delivery, a circumvallate placenta has a thick ring of membranes on its fetal surface. Circumvallate placenta is a placental morphological abnormality associated with increased fetal morbidity and mortality due to the restricted availability of nutrients and oxygen to the developing fetus.

Thyroid disease in pregnancy can affect the health of the mother as well as the child before and after delivery. Thyroid disorders are prevalent in women of child-bearing age and for this reason commonly present as a pre-existing disease in pregnancy, or after childbirth. Uncorrected thyroid dysfunction in pregnancy has adverse effects on fetal and maternal well-being. The deleterious effects of thyroid dysfunction can also extend beyond pregnancy and delivery to affect neurointellectual development in the early life of the child. Due to an increase in thyroxine binding globulin, an increase in placental type 3 deioidinase and the placental transfer of maternal thyroxine to the fetus, the demand for thyroid hormones is increased during pregnancy. The necessary increase in thyroid hormone production is facilitated by high human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) concentrations, which bind the TSH receptor and stimulate the maternal thyroid to increase maternal thyroid hormone concentrations by roughly 50%. If the necessary increase in thyroid function cannot be met, this may cause a previously unnoticed (mild) thyroid disorder to worsen and become evident as gestational thyroid disease. Currently, there is not enough evidence to suggest that screening for thyroid dysfunction is beneficial, especially since treatment thyroid hormone supplementation may come with a risk of overtreatment. After women give birth, about 5% develop postpartum thyroiditis which can occur up to nine months afterwards. This is characterized by a short period of hyperthyroidism followed by a period of hypothyroidism; 20–40% remain permanently hypothyroid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">High-risk pregnancy</span> Medical condition

A high-risk pregnancy is a pregnancy where the mother or the fetus has an increased risk of adverse outcomes compared to uncomplicated pregnancies. No concrete guidelines currently exist for distinguishing “high-risk” pregnancies from “low-risk” pregnancies; however, there are certain studied conditions that have been shown to put the mother or fetus at a higher risk of poor outcomes. These conditions can be classified into three main categories: health problems in the mother that occur before she becomes pregnant, health problems in the mother that occur during pregnancy, and certain health conditions with the fetus.

A pre-existing disease in pregnancy is a disease that is not directly caused by the pregnancy, in contrast to various complications of pregnancy, but which may become worse or be a potential risk to the pregnancy. A major component of this risk can result from necessary use of drugs in pregnancy to manage the disease.

Obstetric medicine, similar to maternal medicine, is a sub-specialty of general internal medicine and obstetrics that specializes in process of prevention, diagnosing, and treating medical disorders in with pregnant women. It is closely related to the specialty of maternal-fetal medicine, although obstetric medicine does not directly care for the fetus. The practice of obstetric medicine, or previously known as "obstetric intervention," primarily consisted of the extraction of the baby during instances of duress, such as obstructed labor or if the baby was positioned in breech.

Hypertensive disease of pregnancy, also known as maternal hypertensive disorder, is a group of high blood pressure disorders that include preeclampsia, preeclampsia superimposed on chronic hypertension, gestational hypertension, and chronic hypertension.

Fetal programming, also known as prenatal programming, is the theory that environmental cues experienced during fetal development play a seminal role in determining health trajectories across the lifespan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pregnancy Outcome Prediction study</span>

The Pregnancy Outcome Prediction (POP) Study is a prospective cohort study of 4,512 women who have never given birth, recruited at the Rosie Hospital between January 2008 and July 2012.

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