Peer support

Last updated

Peer support occurs when people provide knowledge, experience, emotional, social or practical help to each other. [1] It commonly refers to an initiative consisting of trained supporters (although it can be provided by peers without training), and can take a number of forms such as peer mentoring, reflective listening (reflecting content and/or feelings), or counseling. Peer support is also used to refer to initiatives where colleagues, members of self-help organizations and others meet, in person or online, as equals to give each other connection and support on a reciprocal basis.

Contents

Peer support is distinct from other forms of social support in that the source of support is a peer, a person who is similar in fundamental ways to the recipient of the support; their relationship is one of equality. A peer is in a position to offer support by virtue of relevant experience: he or she has "been there, done that" and can relate to others who are now in a similar situation. Trained peer support workers such as peer support specialists and peer counselors receive special training and are required to obtain Continuing Education Units, like clinical staff. Some other trained peer support workers may also be law-enforcement personnel and firefighters as well as emergency medical responders The social peer support also offers an online system of distributed expertise, interactivity, social distance and control, which may promote disclosure of personal problems (Paterson, Brewer, & Leeseberg, 2013).

Underlying theory

Peer support has been shown to be effective in substance use and related behaviour, treatment engagement, and ameliorating risk behaviours associated with HIV and hepatitis C, [2] and empowering people with mental illness and improving their quality of life. [3] Its effectiveness is believed to derive from a variety of psychosocial processes first described by Mark Salzer and colleagues in 2002: [4] social support, experiential knowledge, social learning theory, social comparison theory, the helper-therapy principle, and self-determination theory. [5]

In schools and education

Peer mentoring

Peer mentoring takes place in learning environments such as schools, usually between an older more experienced student and a new student. [19] Peer mentors appear mainly in secondary schools where students moving up from primary schools may need assistance in settling into the whole new schedule and lifestyle of secondary school life. Peer mentoring is also used in the workplace as a means of orienting new employees. New employees who are paired with a peer mentor are twice as likely to remain in their job than those who do not receive mentorship. [20]

Peer listening

This form of peer support is widely used within schools. [21] [22] Peer supporters are trained, normally from within schools or universities, or sometimes by outside organizations, such as Childline's CHIPS (Childline In Partnership With Schools) program, [23] to be "active listeners". [24] Within schools, peer supporters are normally available at break or lunch times.

Peer mediation

Peer mediation is a means of handling incidents of bullying by bringing the victim and the bully together under mediation by one of their peers. [25] [26] [27] [28]

Peer helper in sports

A peer helper in sports works with young adults in sports such as football, soccer, track, volleyball, baseball, cheerleading, swimming, and basketball. They may provide help with game tactics (e.g. keeping your eye on the ball), emotional support, training support, and social support. [29] [30]

In health

In mental health

Peer support can occur within, outside or around traditional mental health services and programs, between two people or in groups. Peer support is increasingly being offered through digital health like text messaging and smartphone apps. [31] Peer support is a key concept in the recovery approach [32] and in consumer-operated services programs. [33] Consumers/clients of mental health programs have also formed non-profit self-help organizations, [34] and serve to support each other and to challenge associated stigma and discrimination. [35] [36] The role of peer workers in mental health services was the subject of a conference in London in April 2012, jointly organized by the Centre for Mental Health and the NHS Confederation. [37] Research has shown that peer-run self-help groups yield improvement in psychiatric symptoms resulting in decreased hospitalization, larger social support networks and enhanced self-esteem and social functioning. [38] [39] A review found that peer support could aid recovery, symptoms of depression, and self-belief. It found that service users valued peer support workers, and that peer support workers themselves had improved wellness and recovery. [40] [41] There is considerable variety in the ways that peer support is defined and conceptualized as it relates to mental health services. In some cases, clinicians, psychiatrists, and other staff who do not necessarily have their own experiences of receiving psychiatric treatment are being trained, often by psychiatric survivors, in peer support as an approach to building relationships that are genuine, mutual, and non-coercive. [42]

For anxiety and depression

In Canada, the LEAF (Living Effectively with Anxiety and Fear) Program is a peer-led support group for cognitive-behavioral therapy of persons with mild to moderate panic disorders. [43]

In a 2011 meta-analysis of seven randomized trials that compared a peer support intervention to group cognitive-behavioral therapy in patients with depression, peer support interventions were found to improve depression symptoms more than usual care alone and results may be comparable to those of group cognitive behavioral therapy. These findings suggest that peer support interventions have the potential to be effective components of depression care, and they support the inclusion of peer support in recovery-oriented mental health treatment. [44]

Several studies have shown that peer support reduces fear during stressful situations such as combat [45] [46] and domestic violence [47] and may mitigate post-traumatic stress disorder. [48] [49] The 1982 Vietnam-Era Veterans Adjustment Survey showed that PTSD was highest in those men and women who lacked positive social support from family, friends, and society in general. [50] [51]

For first responders

Peer support programs have also been implemented to address stress and psychological trauma among law-enforcement personnel [52] [53] and firefighters as well as emergency medical responders. [54] Peer support is an important component of the critical incident stress management program used to alleviate stress and trauma among disaster first responders. [55]

For survivors of trauma

Peer support has been used to help survivors of trauma, [56] [57] such as refugees, cope with stress [58] and deal with difficult living conditions. [59] Peer support is integral to the services provided by the National Center for Trauma-Informed Care. Other programs have been designed for female survivors of domestic violence [60] and for women in prison. [61]

Survivor Corps defines peer support for trauma survivors as "Encouragement and assistance provided by a colleague who has overcome similar difficulties to engender self-confidence and autonomy and to enable the survivor to make his or her own decisions and implement them." [62] Peer support is a fundamental strategy in the rehabilitation of landmine survivors [63] [64] in Afghanistan, Bosnia, El Salvador and Vietnam. A study of 470 amputee survivors of war-related violence in six countries showed that nearly one hundred percent said they had benefited from peer support. [65]

A peer support program operated by the Centre d’Encadrement et de Développement des Anciens Combattants in Burundi with support from the Center for International Stabilization and Recovery and Action on Armed Violence has assisted survivors of war-related violence, including women with disabilities, [66] and female ex-combatants [67] since 2010. A similar program in Rwanda works with survivors of the Rwandan genocide. [68] Peer support has been recommended as a fundamental part of victim assistance programs for survivors of war-related violence. [69]

A 1984 study on the impact of peer support and support groups for victims of domestic violence showed that 146 battered women found women's peer support groups the most helpful source of a range of available treatments. The women in these groups appeared to give direct advice and to act as role models. [70] A 1986 study on 70 adolescent mothers considered to be at risk for domestic violence showed that peer support improved cognitive problem-solving skills, self-reinforcement, and parenting competence. [71]

Pandora's Aquarium, [72] an online support group operating as part of Pandora's Project, offers peer support to survivors of rape and sexual abuse and their friends and family.

For families of children with complex needs

Caregivers and family members of children who have complex medical needs are often under a great deal of pressure and balance meeting the child's physical and mental needs while also caring for other family members. [73] Interventions to support these family members in the form of peer support aim to provide social support. [73] Peer support may be given directly through peer-to-peer mentoring or in groups such a support group with a peer or facilitator leading the group. [73] The effectiveness of peer-support programs has not been well studied. [73] There is no evidence of harm and in general, parents and caregivers (carers) feel that the support programs they used were valuable. [73] There is no strong evidence from trials of benefit and more research is needed to determine how effective this peer support is and what format is the most effective. [73]

In addiction

Twelve-step programs for overcoming substance misuse and other addiction recovery groups are often based on peer support. [74] Since the 1930s Alcoholics Anonymous has promoted peer support between new members and their sponsors: "The process of sponsorship is this: an alcoholic who has made some progress in the recovery program shares that experience on a continuous, individual basis with another alcoholic who is attempting to attain or maintain sobriety through AA." [75] Other addiction recovery programs rely on peer support without following the twelve-step model. [76] [77]

In chronic illness

Peer support has been beneficial for many people living with diabetes. Diabetes encompasses all aspects of people's lives, often for decades. Support from peers can offer emotional, social, and practical assistance that helps people do the things they need to do to stay healthy. [78] Peer support groups for diabetics complement and enhance other health care services. [79] J.F. Caro is the co-founder and Chief Scientific Officer of one of such groups named Peer for Progress. [80]

Peer support has also been provided for people with cancer [81] and HIV. [82] [83] [84] The Breast Cancer Network of Strength trains peer counselors to work with breast cancer survivors. [85]

For people with disabilities

Peer support is considered to be a key component of the independent living movement and has been widely used by organizations that work with people with disabilities, including the Amputee Coalition of America (ACA) and Survivor Corps. Since 1998 the ACA has operated a National Peer Network for survivors of limb loss. The Blinded Veterans Association has recently launched Operation Peer Support (OPS), a program designed to support men and women returning to the US blinded or experiencing significant visual impairment in connection with their military service. Peer support has also benefited survivors of traumatic brain injury and their families. [86] There is also FacingDisability for Families Facing Spinal Cord Injuries , which has a peer counseling program in addition to 1,000 videos drawn from interviews of people with spinal cord injuries, their families, caregivers and experts.

For veterans and their families

Several programs exist that provide peer support for military veterans in the US [87] [88] [89] and Canada. [90] [91] [92] In 2010 the Military Women to Women Peer Support Group was established in Helena, Montana. [93]

The Tragedy Assistance Program for Survivors (TAPS) provides peer support, crisis care, casualty casework assistance, and grief and trauma resources for families of members of the US military. Operation Peer Support (OPS) is a program for US military veterans who were blinded or have significant visual impairment.

In January 2013 Senator Patty Murray, Chairman of the United States Senate Committee on Veterans' Affairs, sponsored an amendment of the National Defense Authorization Act (S.3254) that would require peer counseling as part of a comprehensive suicide prevention program for US veterans. [94]

For veterans with PTSD

Peer support outreach for those exposed to traumatic events refers to programs that seek to identify and reach out to those with or at risk for mental health problems following a traumatic event as a means of connecting those people to mental health services. Paraprofessional peers are defined as having a shared background as the target population and work closely with and supplement the services of the mental healthcare team. These peers are trained in certain interventions (such as Psychological First Aid) and are closely supervised by professional mental healthcare personnel. [95] Peer support for recovery from PTSD refers to programs in which someone with lived experience of PTSD, who experienced a significant reduction in symptoms, provides formal services to those who have not yet made significant steps in recovery from his or her condition. The peer support for recovery model focuses on improvement in overall health and wellness, and has long been successful in the treatment of SMI (serious mental illness) but is relatively new for PTSD. [96] [97] [98]

A further review of existing literature found that carefully recruited, trained, supervised, and supported paraprofessionals can deliver mental health interventions effectively, and may be valuable in communities with fewer resources for mental healthcare. [99]

Researchers at the Palo Alto VA National Center for PTSD also conducted focus groups at the VA Palo Alto Health Care System Trauma Recovery Programs, a PTSD Residential Rehabilitation Program, and a Women's Trauma Recovery Program to determine veteran and staff perceptions of informal peer support interventions already in place. [100] Four themes were identified, including "peer support contributing to a feeling of social connectedness", "positive role modeling by the peer support provider", "peer support augmenting care offered by professional providers", and "peer supporter acting as a 'culture broker' and orienting recipients to mental health treatment."

These findings have been put into practice through a peer support program for veterans in the Sonora, Stockton, and Modesto VA outpatient clinics. The clinics are part of the Palo Alto Veterans Affairs Healthcare System that extend to more rural parts of northern California. The program is funded through grants in support of new treatment approaches to serve veterans in rural, traditionally underserved areas. Leadership for the program comes from the Menlo Park division of the Palo Alto VA system.

The peer support program has been operational since 2012 with over 268 unique veterans seen between 2012 and 2015. The two peer support providers involved in the program are veterans of the Vietnam and Iraq wars, respectively, and after having recovered from their own mental health disorders utilize their experiences to help their fellow veterans. The two providers have been responsible for leading between 5 and 7 groups each week as well as conducting telephone outreach and one-on-one engagement visits. [101] These services have successfully helped to augment the often overburdened mental health treatment teams at the central valley outpatient VA clinics.

The peer support program has been described in several publications. A personal story of success was featured in Stanford Medicine magazine and the collaborative nature of the program was described in the book, Partnerships for Mental Health.

For people at work

Trauma risk management (TRiM) is a work-place based peer support for use in helping to protect the mental health of employees who have been exposed to traumatic stress. The TRiM process enables non-healthcare staff to monitor and manage colleagues. TRiM peer support training provides TRiM Practitioners with a background understanding of psychological trauma and its effects. TRiM was developed in the UK by military mental health professionals including Professor Neil Greenberg. There have been numerous scientific publications on the use of TRiM which have demonstrated it to be an acceptable and effective method of peer support. [102] Similar to TRiM, the sustaining resilience at work (StRaW) peer support could increase recognition among coworkers and managers about the significance of supporting fellow workers in applying their recently acquired knowledge and abilities on the job [103] .. StRaW was developed by March on Stress Ltd and early research again shows it to be a credible and effective way of supporting staff at work. [104]

Sex workers

Several peer-based organizations exist for sex workers. The aim of these organizations is to support the health, rights, and well-being of sex workers and advocate on their behalf for law reform in order to make work safer. Sex work is work and there are many people who willingly choose it as a job/career. While sex trafficking does exist, not everyone who does sex work is doing so under duress. Social stigma is a major hurdle sex workers encounter, with many people trying to 'save' them. Peer support workers and peer educators are seen as best practices by the Sex Industry Network (SIN) when engaging with community members because peers can understand that someone could willingly choose to do sex work.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Post-traumatic stress disorder</span> Mental disorder associated with trauma

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental and behavioral disorder that develops from experiencing a traumatic event, such as sexual assault, warfare, traffic collisions, child abuse, domestic violence, or other threats on a person's life or well-being. Symptoms may include disturbing thoughts, feelings, or dreams related to the events, mental or physical distress to trauma-related cues, attempts to avoid trauma-related cues, alterations in the way a person thinks and feels, and an increase in the fight-or-flight response. These symptoms last for more than a month after the event and can include triggers such as misophonia. Young children are less likely to show distress, but instead may express their memories through play. A person with PTSD is at a higher risk of suicide and intentional self-harm.

Psychological trauma is an emotional response caused by severe distressing events that are outside the normal range of human experiences. It must be understood by the affected person as directly threatening the affected person or their loved ones generally with death, severe bodily injury, or sexual violence; indirect exposure, such as from watching television news, may be extremely distressing and can produce an involuntary and possibly overwhelming physiological stress response, but does not produce trauma per se. Examples of distressing events include violence, rape, or a terrorist attack.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Complex post-traumatic stress disorder</span> Psychological disorder

Complex post-traumatic stress disorder is a stress-related mental disorder generally occurring in response to complex traumas, i.e., commonly prolonged or repetitive exposures to a series of traumatic events, within which individuals perceive little or no chance to escape.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal-assisted therapy</span> Alternative or complementary type of therapy

Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) is an alternative or complementary type of therapy that includes the use of animals in a treatment. The goal of this animal-assisted intervention is to improve a patient's social, emotional, or cognitive functioning. Studies have documented some positive effects of the therapy on subjective self-rating scales and on objective physiological measures such as blood pressure and hormone levels.

The recovery model, recovery approach or psychological recovery is an approach to mental disorder or substance dependence that emphasizes and supports a person's potential for recovery. Recovery is generally seen in this model as a personal journey rather than a set outcome, and one that may involve developing hope, a secure base and sense of self, supportive relationships, empowerment, social inclusion, coping skills, and meaning. Recovery sees symptoms as a continuum of the norm rather than an aberration and rejects sane-insane dichotomy.

Judith Lewis Herman is an American psychiatrist, researcher, teacher, and author who has focused on the understanding and treatment of incest and traumatic stress.

Childhood trauma is often described as serious adverse childhood experiences. Children may go through a range of experiences that classify as psychological trauma; these might include neglect, abandonment, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and physical abuse. They may also witness abuse of a sibling or parent, or have a mentally ill parent. These events can have profound psychological, physiological, and sociological impacts leading to lasting negative effects on health and well-being. These events may include antisocial behaviors, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and sleep disturbances. Additionally, children whose mothers have experienced traumatic or stressful events during pregnancy have an increased risk of mental health disorders and other neurodevelopmental disorders.

Prolonged exposure therapy (PE) is a form of behavior therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy designed to treat post-traumatic stress disorder. It is characterized by two main treatment procedures – imaginal and in vivo exposures. Imaginal exposure is repeated 'on-purpose' retelling of the trauma memory. In vivo exposure is gradually confronting situations, places, and things that are reminders of the trauma or feel dangerous. Additional procedures include processing of the trauma memory and breathing retraining.

As defined by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs, military sexual trauma (MST) are experiences of sexual assault, or repeated threatening sexual harassment that occurred while a person was in the United States Armed Forces.

Vicarious trauma (VT) is a term invented by Irene Lisa McCann and Laurie Anne Pearlman that is used to describe how work with traumatized clients affects trauma therapists. The phenomenon had been known as secondary traumatic stress, a term coined by Charles Figley. In vicarious trauma, the therapist experiences a profound worldview change and is permanently altered by empathetic bonding with a client. This change is thought to have three requirements: empathic engagement and exposure to graphic, traumatizing material; exposure to human cruelty; and the reenactment of trauma in therapy. This can produce changes in a therapist's spirituality, worldview, and self-identity.

PTSD or post-traumatic stress disorder, is a psychiatric disorder characterised by intrusive thoughts and memories, dreams or flashbacks of the event; avoidance of people, places and activities that remind the individual of the event; ongoing negative beliefs about oneself or the world, mood changes and persistent feelings of anger, guilt or fear; alterations in arousal such as increased irritability, angry outbursts, being hypervigilant, or having difficulty with concentration and sleep.

Transgenerational trauma is the psychological and physiological effects that the trauma experienced by people has on subsequent generations in that group. The primary mode of transmission is the shared family environment of the infant causing psychological, behavioral and social changes in the individual.

Operational stress injury or OSI is a non-clinical, non-medical term referring to a persistent psychological difficulty caused by traumatic experiences or prolonged high stress or fatigue during service as a military member or first responder. The term does not replace any individual diagnoses or disorders, but rather describes a category of mental health concerns linked to the particular challenges that these military members or first responders encounter in their service. There is not yet a single fixed definition. The term was first conceptualized within the Canadian Armed Forces to help foster understanding of the broader mental health challenges faced by military members who have been impacted by traumatic experiences and who face difficulty as a result. OSI encompasses a number of the diagnoses found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) classification system, with the common thread being a linkage to the operational experiences of the afflicted. The term has gained traction outside of the military community as an appropriate way to describe similar challenges suffered by those whose work regularly exposes them to trauma, particularly front line emergency first responders such as but not limited to police, firefighters, paramedics, correctional officers, and emergency dispatchers. The term, at present mostly used within Canada, is increasingly significant in the development of legislation, policy, treatments and benefits in the military and first responder communities.

Secondary trauma can be incurred when an individual is exposed to people who have been traumatized themselves, disturbing descriptions of traumatic events by a survivor, or others inflicting cruelty on one another. Symptoms of secondary trauma are similar to those of PTSD. Secondary trauma has been researched in first responders, nurses and physicians, mental health care workers, and children of traumatized parents.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trauma and first responders</span> Trauma experienced by first responders

Trauma in first responders refers to the psychological trauma experienced by first responders, such as police officers, firefighters, and paramedics, often as a result of events experienced in their line of work. The nature of a first responder's occupation continuously puts them in harm's way and regularly exposes them to traumatic situations, such as people who have been harmed, injured, or killed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Post-traumatic stress disorder after World War II</span>

WWII lasted from September 1st, 1939 until September 2nd, 1945. The death toll during WWII has been estimated to be between 35,000,000 and 60,000,000. However, the exact number is unknown. With all those fatalities, it should not be surprising that it left so many lasting effects on the survivors. There have been many terms for these lasting effects over the decades. These terms include, but are not limited to, shell shock and combat fatigue. In 1980, the diagnosis of PTSD was added to the newly published DSM 3.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Internet-based treatments for trauma survivors</span>

Internet-based treatments for trauma survivors is a growing class of online treatments that allow for an individual who has experienced trauma to seek and receive treatment without needing to attend psychotherapy in person. The progressive movement to online resources and the need for more accessible mental health services has given rise to the creation of online-based interventions aimed to help those who have experienced traumatic events. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has shown to be particularly effective in the treatment of trauma-related disorders and adapting CBT to an online format has been shown to be as effective as in-person CBT in the treatment of trauma. Due to its positive outcomes, CBT-based internet treatment options for trauma survivors has been an expanding field in both research and clinical settings.

Being exposed to traumatic events such as war, violence, disasters, loss, injury or illness can cause trauma. Additionally, the most common diagnostic instruments such as the ICD-11 and the DSM-5 expand on this definition of trauma to include perceived threat to death, injury, or sexual violence to self or a loved one. Even after the situation has passed, the experience can bring up a sense of vulnerability, hopelessness, anger and fear.

Trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in Asian Americans is a growing topic related to trauma and racial psychology that requires more attention and research.

Josef I. Ruzek is a clinical psychologist specializing in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) treatment, with a focus on early intervention, trauma prevention, and the application of technology to enhance treatment accessibility and effectiveness

References

  1. ↑ Shery Mead, David Hilton, Laurie Curtis, "Peer Support: A Theoretical Perspective." Archived 2010-11-24 at the Wayback Machine
  2. ↑ Tracy, Kathlene; Wallace, Samantha (2016). "Benefits of peer support groups in the treatment of addiction". Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 7: 143–154. doi: 10.2147/SAR.S81535 . PMC   5047716 . PMID   27729825.
  3. ↑ Bellamy, Chyrell; Schmutte, Timothy; Davidson, Larry (2017). "An update on the growing evidence base for peer support". Mental Health and Social Inclusion. 21 (3): 161–167. doi:10.1108/MHSI-03-2017-0014.
  4. ↑ Salzer, Mark (2002). "Consumer-Delivered Services as a Best Practice in Mental Health Care and the Development of Practice Guidelines". Psychiatric Rehabilitation Skills. 6: 355–382. doi:10.1080/10973430208408443. S2CID   5163131..
  5. ↑ Mead, S.; MacNeil, C (2006). "Peer Support: What Makes It Unique?". International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation. 10 (2): 29–37. Archived from the original on 2016-08-31. Retrieved 2011-11-02.
  6. ↑ Sarason, I.; Levine, H.; Basham, R.; Sarason, B. (1983). "Assessing social support: The social support questionnaire". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 44: 127–139. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.127.
  7. ↑ Flannery Jr, Raymond B. (1990). "Social support and psychological trauma: A methodological review". Journal of Traumatic Stress. 3 (4): 593–611. doi:10.1002/jts.2490030409. S2CID   143847107.
  8. ↑ Young, K.W. (2006). "Social Support and Life Satisfaction". International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation. 10 (2): 155–164. Archived from the original on 2019-07-30. Retrieved 2011-11-02.
  9. ↑ Thoits, P (1986). "Social support as coping assistance". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 54 (4): 416–423. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.54.4.416. PMID   3745593.
  10. ↑ Solomon, Phyllis (2004). "Peer Support/Peer Provided Services Underlying Processes, Benefits, and Critical Ingredients" (PDF). Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal. 27 (4): 392–401. doi:10.2975/27.2004.392.401. PMID   15222150. S2CID   33135053. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-28. Retrieved 2011-03-10.
  11. ↑ Shubert, M., & Borkman, T. (1994). "Identifying the experiential knowledge developed within a self-help group." In T. Powell (Ed.) Understanding the self-help organization. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
  12. ↑ Coyne, J. C.; De Longis, A. (1986). "Going beyond social support: The role of social relationships in adaptation". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 54 (4): 454–460. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.54.4.454. PMID   3745597.
  13. ↑ Salzer, M.; Shear, S. L. (2002). "Identifying consumer-provider benefits in evaluations of consumer-delivered services". Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal. 25 (3): 281–288. doi:10.1037/h0095014. PMID   11860001.
  14. ↑ Festinger, L (1954). "A theory of social comparison processes". Human Relations . 7 (2): 117–140. doi:10.1177/001872675400700202. S2CID   18918768.
  15. ↑ Riessman, F. (1965). "The 'Helper-therapy' principle." Social Work, 10, 27-32,
  16. ↑ Skovholt, T M (1974). "The client as helper: A means to promote psychological growth". Counseling Psychologist. 43 (3): 58–64. doi:10.1177/001100007400400308. S2CID   144302615.
  17. ↑ From Salzer and Shear, S. L. (2002), p. 282.
  18. ↑ Deci, EL; Ryan, RM (1985). "The general causality orientations scale: Self-determination in personality". Journal of Research in Personality . 19 (2): 109–134. doi:10.1016/0092-6566(85)90023-6.
  19. ↑ Steve Grbac, "How to implement a 'Peer Support’ program in a P-6 School", Scotch College Junior School, Melbourne Australia; International Boys' Schools Coalition 15th Annual Conference, Toronto, Canada, June 2008.
  20. ↑ Kaye, Beverly; Jordan-Evans, Sharon (2005). Love 'Em or Lose Em: Getting Good People to Stay . San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. p.  117. ISBN   978-1-57675-327-9.
  21. ↑ Helen Cowie, Patti Wallace, Peer Support in Action: From Bystanding to Standing By, SAGE Publications Ltd; 1st edition February 2001; ISBN   0-7619-6353-7
  22. ↑ Sandy Hazouri, Miriam Smith McLaughlin, Peer listening in the middle school: training activities for students. Educational Media Corp., 1991. ISBN   978-0-932796-34-9
  23. ↑ Chrissan Moldrich and J.D. Carpentieri, "Every school should have one: How peer support schemes make schools better", ChildLine, January 2008, ISBN   0-9524948-8-4.
  24. ↑ Joel H. Brown, Marianne D'Emidio-Caston, Bonnie Benard, Resilience Education, Corwin Press, 2001. ISBN   978-0-7619-7626-4
  25. ↑ Cheryl Sanders (Editor), Gary D. Phye (Editor), Bullying: Implications for the Classroom, Academic Press; 1st edition May 14, 2004; ISBN   0-12-617955-7.
  26. ↑ "Creating a Positive Climate: Peer Mediation; What Works in Preventing School Violence."
  27. ↑ Cremin, Hilary, Peer Mediation: Citizenship and Social Inclusion in Action. Maidenhead: Open University Press, September 2007; ISBN   0-335-22111-4.
  28. ↑ Thompson, S. M. "Peer mediation: A peaceful solution". School Counselor. 1996 (44): 151–154.
  29. ↑ John DeMarco, Peer helping skills: a leader's guide to training peer helpers and peer tutors for middle and high school. Hazelden Publishing, 1993. ISBN   978-1-56246-090-7
  30. ↑ Gray, H. D. and J. A. Tindall (1985). Peer counseling: An in-depth look at training peer helpers. Muncie, Ind., Accelerated Development. ISBN   0-915202-52-2
  31. ↑ Fortuna, Karen L.; Venegas, Maria; Umucu, Emre; Mois, George; Walker, Robert; Brooks, Jessica M. (2019-09-01). "The Future of Peer Support in Digital Psychiatry: Promise, Progress, and Opportunities". Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry. 6 (3): 221–231. doi:10.1007/s40501-019-00179-7. ISSN   2196-3061. PMC   8011292 . PMID   33796435.
  32. ↑ "Recovery: Recovery - Peer workers - Centre for Mental Health". Archived from the original on 2013-02-14. Retrieved 2012-05-30.
  33. ↑ "Campbell, J. The Consumer-Operated Services Program (COSP) Multisite study, Missouri Institute of Mental Health, St. Louis, 2010". Archived from the original on 2014-01-13. Retrieved 2013-04-17.
  34. ↑ Ochocka, J.; Janzen, R.; Nelson, G. (2002). "Sharing Power and Knowledge: Professional and Mental Health Consumer/Survivor Researchers Working Together in a Participatory Action Research Project". Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal. 25 (4): 379–87. doi:10.1037/h0094999. PMID   12013266.
  35. ↑ "Shery Mead and Cheryl MacNeil, "Peer Support: What Makes It Unique?", December 2004" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-11-24. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
  36. ↑ Davidson, I.; Chinman; Kloos, B.; Weingarten, R.; Stayner, D. A.; Tebes, J. K. (1999). "Peer support among individuals with severe mental illness: A review of the evidence". Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 6 (2): 165–187. doi:10.1093/clipsy.6.2.165.
  37. ↑ http://www.nhsconfed.org/Networks/MentalHealth/events/recent_events/Pages/mh-peer-support.aspx. [ dead link ]
  38. ↑ "Peer Support Research: A Promising New Approach."
  39. ↑ "Jean Campbell and Judy Leaver, "Emerging New Practices in Organized Peer Support," National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors (NASMHPD) and the National Technical Assistance Center for State Mental Health Planning (NTAC), March 2003, p. 17" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-12-11. Retrieved 2010-09-03.
  40. ↑ Cooper, Ruth E.; Saunders, Katherine R. K.; Greenburgh, Anna; Shah, Prisha; Appleton, Rebecca; Machin, Karen; Jeynes, Tamar; Barnett, Phoebe; Allan, Sophie M.; Griffiths, Jessica; Stuart, Ruth; Mitchell, Lizzie; Chipp, Beverley; Jeffreys, Stephen; Lloyd-Evans, Brynmor (2024-02-29). "The effectiveness, implementation, and experiences of peer support approaches for mental health: a systematic umbrella review". BMC Medicine. 22 (1): 72. doi: 10.1186/s12916-024-03260-y . ISSN   1741-7015. PMC   10902990 . PMID   38418998.
  41. ↑ "Can peer support workers benefit mental health services?". NIHR Evidence. 10 October 2024.
  42. ↑ "Home Content". Intentional Peer Support. Retrieved 2015-11-11.
  43. ↑ Shelley Jones, "The LEAF Program: Peer-led Group CBT", Visions: BC's Mental Health and Addictions Journal, Vol 6, no. 1 2009, pp. 16-17.
  44. ↑ Pfeiffer, PN; Heisler, M; Piette, JD; Rogers, MAM; Valenstein, M (2011). "Efficacy of peer support interventions for depression: a meta-analysis" (PDF). General Hospital Psychiatry. 2011 (33): 29–36. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2010.10.002. PMC   3052992 . PMID   21353125. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-27. Retrieved 2011-03-10.
  45. ↑ Solomon, Z.; Mikulincer, M.; Hobfall, S. E. (1986). "Effects of social support and battle intensity on loneliness and breakdown during combat". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 51 (6): 1269–1276. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1269. PMID   3806362.
  46. ↑ Solomon, Z., and Oppenheimer, B. (1986). "Social network variables and stress-reaction lessons from the 1973 Yom-Kippur War." Milit. Med. 151; pp. 12-15.
  47. ↑ Mitchell, R. E.; Hodson, C. A. (1983). "Coping with domestic violence: Social support and psychological health among battered women". American Journal of Community Psychology. 11 (6): 629–654. doi:10.1007/bf00896600. PMID   6666751. S2CID   33974934.
  48. ↑ Bisson, Jonathan I.; Brayne, Mark; Ochberg, Frank M.; Everly, George S. (2007). "Early Psychosocial Intervention Following Traumatic Events". American Journal of Psychiatry. 164 (7): 1016–1019. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.164.7.1016. PMID   17606651.
  49. ↑ Jones, N; Roberts, P; Greenberg, N (2003). "Peer-group risk assessment: a post-traumatic management strategy for hierarchical organizations". Occupational Medicine. 53 (7): 469–475. doi: 10.1093/occmed/kqg093 . PMID   14581645.
  50. ↑ Stretch, R. H. (1985). "Posttraumatic stress disorder among U.S. Army Reserve Vietnam and Vietnam-era veterans". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 53 (6): 935–936. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.53.6.935. PMID   4086693.
  51. ↑ Stretch, R. H. (1986). "Incidence and etiology of post-traumatic stress disorder among active duty personnel". Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 16: 464–481. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1986.tb01153.x.
  52. ↑ Rachelle Katz, Daniel I. Cohen and Ronnie M. Hirsh, Cop to Cop: A Peer Support Training Manual for the Law Enforcement Officer, Peer Support Press; 2nd edition, January 1, 2000. ISBN   978-0-9669496-3-6
  53. ↑ Grauwiler, Peggy; Barocas, Briana; Mills, Linda G, "Police peer support programs: current knowledge and practice," International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 27-38, Winter 2008.
  54. ↑ Dowdall-Thomae, Cynthia; Culliney, Sean; Piechura, Jeff, "Peer Support Action Plan: Northwest Fire and Rescue," International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 177-184, Summer 2009.
  55. ↑ Jones, Norma S C; Majied, Kamilah, "Disaster mental health: a critical incident stress management program (CISM) to mitigate compassion fatigue," Journal of Emergency Management, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 17-23, July/August 2009.
  56. ↑ Macauley, C. "Peer Support and Trauma Recovery," Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 15.1, Spring 2011, pp. 14-17.
  57. ↑ "Project ABLE's Trauma Survivor Peer Support Project in Oregon". Archived from the original on 2011-07-27. Retrieved 2010-10-12.
  58. ↑ "Josi Salem-Pickartz, 2008: Strengthening community mental health resources by training refugees as peer counsellors – a manual for trainers,Intervention, The War Trauma Foundation and the Al Himaya Foundation for Trauma Recovery, Growth and Resilience" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-13. Retrieved 2010-09-02.
  59. ↑ Nancy Baron, On the road to peace of mind, War Trauma Foundation, 2009. ISSN   1571-8883 Archived 2011-07-13 at the Wayback Machine
  60. ↑ Fearday, F.L.; Cape, A.L. (Winter 2004). "A voice for traumatized women: inclusion and mutual support". Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal. 27 (3): 258–65. doi:10.2975/27.2004.258.265. PMID   14982333.
  61. ↑ "Blanchette, K., Eljdupovic-Guzina, G. (1998). "Results of a pilot study of the Peer Support Program for Women Offenders." Edmonton, Research Branch, Correctional Service of Canada" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-28. Retrieved 2010-09-24.
  62. ↑ Jerry White, I Will Not Be Broken, (published in paperback as Getting Up When Life Knocks You Down,).
  63. ↑ Ken Rutherford, "Peer-to-Peer Support Vital to Survivors", Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 14.2, Summer 2010, p. 5.
  64. ↑ Beth Sperber Richie, Angela Ferguson, Zahabia Adamaly, Dalia El-Khoury, Maria Gomez, "Paths to Recovery: Coordinated and Comprehensive Care for Landmine Survivors," Journal of Mine Action Dec 2002, 6.3: 66-69.
  65. ↑ Macauley C, Townsend M, Freeman M, Maxwell B. "Peer Support and Recovery from Limb Loss in Post-Conflict Settings," Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 15.2, Summer 2011, pp. 17-20.
  66. ↑ Macauley C. "Healing the Wounds of War: Victim Assistance in Post-Conflict Burundi." Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 16.3, Fall 2012: pp 24-26.
  67. ↑ Macauley, C. Onyango, M. and Niragira, E. "Peer-support Training for Nonliterate and Semiliterate Female Ex-combatants: Experience in Burundi," Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Spring 2012, 16.1; pp. 52-56.
  68. ↑ Macauley C. "Women after the Rwandan Genocide: Making the Most of Survival." Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 17.1, Spring 2013.
  69. ↑ Rutherford K and Macauley C. "The Power of Peers: Rethinking Victim Assistance," The Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 17.3 Fall 2013.
  70. ↑ Donato, K. M.; Bowker, L. H. (1984). "Understanding the help-seeking behavior of battered women: A comparison of traditional service agencies and women's groups". International Journal of Women's Studies. 1: 99–109.
  71. ↑ Schinke, S. P.; Schilling, R. F.; Barth, R. B.; Gilchrist, L. D.; Maxwell, J. S. (1986). "Stress management intervention to prevent family violence". Journal of Family Violence. 1: 13–26. doi:10.1007/bf00977029. S2CID   43599615.
  72. ↑ "Pandora's Aquarium". pandys.org. 2011. Retrieved August 29, 2011.
  73. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Sartore, Gina-Maree; Pourliakas, Anastasia; Lagioia, Vince (2021-12-20). Cochrane Consumers and Communication Group (ed.). "Peer support interventions for parents and carers of children with complex needs". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2021 (12): CD010618. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010618.pub2. PMC   8684823 . PMID   34923624.
  74. ↑ Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, "What are Peer Recovery Support Services?" HHS Publication No. (SMA) 09-4454. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2009.
  75. ↑ "Questions & Answers on Sponsorship", Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc. 2005, p. 7.
  76. ↑ Sherman, B. R., L. M. Sanders, et al. (1998). Addiction and pregnancy: empowering recovery through peer counseling. Westport, Conn., Praeger.
  77. ↑ Colombo Plan Drug Advisory Programme. (2003). Development of family and peer support groups: a handbook on addiction recovery issues. CPDAP, Colombo.
  78. ↑ Brownson, Carol A.; Heisler, Michele (2009). "The Role of Peer Support in Diabetes Care and Self-Management". The Patient: Patient-Centered Outcomes Research. 2 (1): 5–17. doi:10.2165/01312067-200902010-00002. PMID   22273055. S2CID   2292786.
  79. ↑ Michelle Heisler, "Building Peer Support Programs to Manage Chronic Disease: Seven Models for Success" [ permanent dead link ], California Healthcare Foundation, December 2006.
  80. ↑ Caro, JF; Fisher, EB (Jun 2010). "A solution might be within people with diabetes themselves". Family Practice. 27 (Suppl 1): i1-2. doi: 10.1093/fampra/cmn082 . PMID   20483799.
  81. ↑ Peer Support Network, an internet-based peer support service for newly diagnosed cancer patients, cancer survivors and their caregivers.
  82. ↑ "Peer Adherence Support Manual, A Manual for Program Managers and Supervisors of Peer Workers; Harlem Adherence to Treatment Study, Harlem Hospital Peer Support for HIV Treatment Adherence, 2003" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-11-23. Retrieved 2010-09-22.
  83. ↑ AIDS Information Center, Uganda
  84. ↑ Fidaner C, Eser SY, Parkin DM (2001), Peer to Peer. HIV & AIDS Peer Educators Trainers' Guide for IMPACT Implementing Agencies in Nigeria. Family Health International.
  85. ↑ BCNS's Breast Cancer Survivor Match Program
  86. ↑ Hibbard, MR; Cantor, J; Charatz, H; Rosenthal, R; Ashman, T; Gundersen, N; et al. (2002). "Peer support in the community: Initial findings of a mentoring program for individuals with traumatic brain injury and their families". The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation. 17 (2): 112–31. doi:10.1097/00001199-200204000-00004. PMID   11909510. S2CID   12890305.
  87. ↑ Vets4Vets, a non-partisan organization dedicated to helping Iraq and Afghanistan-era veterans to heal from the psychological injuries of war through the use of peer support.
  88. ↑ Statewide Advocacy for Veterans' Empowerment (SAVE)
  89. ↑ Resnick, Sandra Gail; Rosenheck, Robert A: "Integrating peer-provided services: a quasi-experimental study of recovery orientation, confidence, and empowerment," Psychiatric Services, vol. 59, no. 11, pp. 1307-1314, November 2008.
  90. ↑ The Operational Stress Injury Social Support (OSISS) Program for Canadian Veterans. Archived 2011-07-06 at the Wayback Machine See also "Evaluation of the OSISS Peer Support Network," Dept. of National Defence and Veterans Affairs Canada, January 2005. [ permanent dead link ]
  91. ↑ "Heber, A., Grenier, S., Richardson, D., Darte, K. (2006). "Combining Clinical Treatment and Peer Support: A Unique Approach to Overcoming Stigma and Delivering Care." In Human Dimensions in Military Operations – Military Leaders' Strategies for Addressing Stress and Psychological Support; Neuilly-sur-Seine, France, Canadian Department Of National Defence". Archived from the original on 2012-10-07. Retrieved 2010-09-24.
  92. ↑ Richardson, J. D.; Darte, K.; et al. (2008). "Operational Stress Injury Social Support: a Canadian innovation in professional peer support". Canadian Military Journal. 9: 57–64.
  93. ↑ Eve Byron, "Helena area is home to 1st 'Military Women to Women Peer Support Group’ for those with PTSD," Independent Record, The Billings Gazette, August 3, 2010.
  94. ↑ "MILITARY SUICIDE: Murray Effort to Create Standardized Suicide Prevention Program Signed into Law by President Obama."
  95. ↑ McCabe, O. Lee; Perry, Charlene; Azur, Melissa; Taylor, Henry G.; Bailey, Mark; Links, Johnathan M. (2011). "Psychological first aid training for paraprofessionals: A systems-based model for enhancing capacity of rural emergency responses". Prehospital and Disaster Medicine. 26 (4): 251–258. doi:10.1017/s1049023x11006297. PMID   22008099. S2CID   206310070.
  96. ↑ Sledge, W. H.; Lawless, M.; Sells, D.; Wieland, M.; O'Connel, M. J.; Davidson, L. (2011). "Effectiveness of peer support at reducing readmissions of persons with multiple psychiatric hospitalizations". Psychiatric Services. 62 (5): 541–544. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.62.5.541. PMID   21532082.
  97. ↑ Grenier, S.; Darte, K.; Heber, A.; Richardson, D. (2007). "The operational stress injury social support program: a peer support program in collaboration between the Canadian Forces and Veterans Affairs Canada". Combat Stress Injury: Theory, Research, and Management.
  98. ↑ Davidson, L.; Shahar, G.; Stayner, D. A.; Chinman, M. J.; Rakfeldt, J.; Tebes, J. K. (2004). "Supported socialization for people with psychiatric disabilities: Lessons from a randomized controlled trial". Journal of Community Psychology. 32 (4): 453–477. doi:10.1002/jcop.20013.
  99. ↑ Jain, S (Aug 2010). "The role of paraprofessionals in providing treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder in low-resource communities". Journal of the American Medical Association. 304 (5): 571–2. doi:10.1001/jama.2010.1096. PMID   20682940.
  100. ↑ Jain, S; McLean, C; Rosen, C (2012). "Is there a role for peer support delivered interventions in the treatment of veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder?". Military Medicine. 177 (5): 481–3. doi: 10.7205/MILMED-D-11-00401 . PMID   22645871.
  101. ↑ Joseph, K. M.; Hernandez, J. M.; Jain, S. (2015). "Peer support telephone outreach intervention for veterans with PTSD". Psychiatric Services. 66 (9): 1001. doi: 10.1176/appi.ps.660903 . PMID   26323175.
  102. ↑ "March On Stress >> TRiM and related research". www.marchonstress.com. Retrieved 2019-10-01.
  103. ↑ Alam, Md Ashraful; Ahmed, Razu; Sarkar, Shakhawat Hossain (22 May 2023). "Managerial Knowledge and Skills Transfer Practices in Bangladesh". International Journal of Professional Business Review. 8 (5): e02068. doi: 10.26668/businessreview/2023.v8i5.2068 . S2CID   259643593 . Retrieved 2023-05-22.
  104. ↑ Agarwal, Bhavya; Brooks, Samantha K.; Greenberg, Neil (2019-09-20). "The Role of Peer Support in Managing Occupational Stress: A Qualitative Study of the Sustaining Resilience at Work Intervention". Workplace Health & Safety. 68 (2): 57–64. doi:10.1177/2165079919873934. ISSN   2165-0799. PMID   31538851. S2CID   202702972.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.