Peer mentoring

Last updated

Peer mentoring is a form of mentorship that usually takes place between a person who has lived through a specific experience (peer mentor) and a person who is new to that experience (the peer mentee). An example would be an experienced student being a peer mentor to a new student, the peer mentee, in a particular subject, or in a new school. Peer mentors are also used for health and lifestyle changes. For example, clients, or patients, with support from peers, may have one-on-one sessions that meet regularly to help them recover or rehabilitate. Peer mentoring provides individuals who have had a specific life experience the chance to learn from those who have recovered, or rehabilitated, following such an experience. Peer mentors provide education, recreation and support opportunities to individuals. The peer mentor may challenge the mentee with new ideas, and encourage the mentee to move beyond the things that are most comfortable. Most peer mentors are picked for their sensibility, confidence, social skills and reliability. [1]

Contents

Critics [2] [3] of peer mentoring insist that little is known of the nature of peer mentoring relationships and that there are few consistent studies indicating the outcomes of peer mentoring beyond good feelings among peers and the development of friendships. Peer mentoring led by senior students may discourage diversity and prevent Critical analysis of the higher education system.

Program design characteristics

The frequency with which peer mentors and mentees meet varies according to the particular mentoring program. Some pairs may make contact once a month, while others may meet 3-4 times per month or more. It is usually advised that mentors and mentees meet more often in the beginning of the relationship in order to establish a good foundation. Mentors and mentees may maintain contact through email, telephone or in-person meetings. Peer mentoring organizations may also set up social events for those participating in the program. These events provide good opportunities for increased social interaction between mentors and mentees. [4]

The compatibility of mentor and mentee is a factor that should be taken into consideration when choosing pairs. Mentors and mentees may benefit from having similar backgrounds, interests and life experiences. [5] Age, gender, ethnicity, language preferences, and education may be taken into consideration when pairing mentors with mentees. [6] [7]

The quality of the peer mentoring relationship is important for mentees to experience positive results. [8] A mentor relationship is more successful when the mentor cares for the whole person and not just the academic or career side of a person. [9] Successful mentors tend to be available, knowledgeable, educated in diversity issues, empathic, personable, encouraging, supportive, and passionate. [9] Although this is not an exhaustive list of qualities, they have been shown to be important for successful mentoring relationships. [9] It is important to keep qualities like this in mind when recruiting and training mentors.

The objectives of a peer mentoring program should be well-defined and measurable. The effectiveness of the program should be monitored to ensure that the objectives are being met. One way to monitor the effectiveness of a program is to administer evaluations to the mentors and mentees. [10]

In education

Peer mentoring in education was promoted during the 1960s by educator and theorist Paulo Freire:

"The fundamental task of the mentor is a liberatory task. It is not to encourage the mentor's goals and aspirations and dreams to be reproduced in the mentees, the students, but to give rise to the possibility that the students become the owners of their own history. This is how I understand the need that teachers have to transcend their merely instructive task and to assume the ethical posture of a mentor who truly believes in the total autonomy, freedom, and development of those he or she mentors." [11]

Peer mentors appear mainly in secondary schools where students moving up from primary schools may need assistance in settling into the new schedule and lifestyle of secondary school life. However peer mentoring can occur at the grade school level, the undergraduate level, and the graduate school level. The goals of the program may vary according to the level, the educational institution or the discipline. [12]

Peer mentors in secondary schools aid in the transition of younger students from primary school to secondary school. [13] They may assist mentees with their school work and study skills, peer pressure (such as pressure to use drugs or have sex), issues with attendance and behavior, and typical family problems. [14] Youth mentors are persons for children or adolescents to spend time with, often to compensate for absent family members or an inadequate home environment. [15] Mentoring programs for youth can be especially useful for students who lack social support, and who therefore may be susceptible to delinquency.

Peer mentors for undergraduates may assist newly admitted students with time management, study skills, organizational skills, curriculum planning, administrative issues, test preparation, term paper preparation, goal setting, and grade monitoring. Additionally, such mentors may provide other forms of social support for the student, such as friendship, networking, and aiding the student's adjustment to college life. [16]

A peer mentor at the graduate school level may assist new students in selecting an advisor, negotiating the advisor/advisee relationship, preparation for major examinations, publishing articles, searching for jobs, and adjusting to the rigors of graduate school life. [17]

In higher education

Peer mentoring in higher education has enjoyed a good name and is seen favorably by both educational administrators and students. [18] During the last decade, peer mentoring has expanded and is found in most colleges and universities, frequently as a means to outreach, retain, and recruit minority students. [4] Peer mentoring is used extensively in higher education for several reasons:

There have been numerous examples in various universities. Some examples are as follows:

Peer Assisted Study Session at Monash University

Peer Assisted Study Sessions (PASS) is a peer-led structured academic mentoring program designed to provide academic assistance for new students in their transition from college to university studies and also for students struggling in certain units at Monash University. The school of medicine at Monash utilizes peer mentoring as part of its curricula and it is delivered by accomplished senior year medical students to junior medical students on a weekly basis after rigorous selection and training. Friendly peer leaders are empowered with guided support to impart their knowledge and experience, and motivate mentees to do better with coursework. [21]

The Coca-Cola Valued Youth Program

One established cross-age mentoring program is the Coca-Cola Valued Youth Program (VYP), which originated in San Antonio, Texas through the Intercultural Development Research Association (IDRA). In an effort to decrease truancy, the need for disciplinary actions and drop-out rates of students, this program paired up "at-risk" middle school students to tutor "at-risk" elementary school students, both primarily of Hispanic origin with limited English proficiency. [22] In this case, the tutors who participated were not only rewarded by getting paid and receiving course credit, but also by receiving recognition for their service and by improving their own academic and tutoring skills through special tutoring classes. These VYP program benefits, in turn, resulted in a positive impact on school success and lowered the dropout rates of these tutors. [23]

The University of Massachusetts Peer Mentor Program

The Peer Mentor program at UMass Amherst offers undergraduate students the chance to be live-in, part-time staff members for freshman residents within residential life. This is a paid position. The Peer Mentor's "job" is to assist freshman students with their transition from high school to college. UMass Peer Mentors offers academic support within the first year and are responsible for connecting the residents to campus resources throughout the academic year. Peer mentors follow a curriculum that includes but are not limited to: assisting in New Student Orientation (NSO), academic mentoring (which includes references to tutoring centers, deans, and undergraduate advising), connecting faculty with the students, and hosting various academic success workshops.

California State University, Northridge EOP Mentoring program

The EOP program has a subset of programs that assist student success with the aid of peer mentors. The program started in the late 1960s with it goal to further higher education and students success for underrepresented students. It was student lead to provide equity for minority students. This population included ethnic minorities, women, and later branched off to better serve students with disabilities and foster youth. The history at California state University, Northridge established EOP programs at all 23 CSU campuses. The main goal of peer mentors at EOP is to help students connect and be made aware of campus resources, staff, university etiquette, and serve as a supportive role model to foster motivation and transition from Community College or Highschool into a four year Institution. EOP's subset of programs includes Transitional Programs that utilize peer mentors in the classroom with supervision of faculty. Peer mentors often share their experiences and build rapport with incoming students to encourage students to seek help by example.

Advantages in education

Peer mentoring may help new students adapt to a new academic environment faster. The relationship between the mentor and mentee gives the mentee a sense of being connected to the larger community where they may otherwise feel lost. [24] Mentors are chosen because they are academically successful and because they possess good communication, social and leadership skills. As a consequence, mentors serve as positive role models for the students, guiding them towards academic and social success. Mentors provide support, advice, encouragement, and even friendship to students. Peer mentoring may improve student retention rates. [25] [26]

Mentors also stand to benefit from the mentor/mentee relationship. Mentors develop friendships through their participation in mentoring programs and usually derive satisfaction from helping a younger student, and possibly shaping his or her life in a positive way. [27] Mentors may also be paid, and they may receive other benefits such as prioritized registration, course credit, and references.

In higher education tutorial settings, the benefits of peer mentoring programs also extend to class tutors. Using grounded theory techniques, Outhred and Chester found that five themes underlie their experiences: role exploration, sharing responsibility, regulation of the peer-tutored groups, harnessing the peer tutors' role, and community. [28]

Criticisms

Peer mentoring programs usually target ethnic minorities, people with disabilities and women. This approach tends to be conceived out of the "deficiency model" where multi-ethnic students, women and students with disabilities are perceived as being in need of help and unlikely to succeed unless senior students or successful adults help them. [29] One of the main criticisms of peer mentoring is the lack of research to show how peer mentoring relationships work, how they develop, and what their outcomes are. [30] Also, the nature of being either a mentor or mentee and at the same time a peer can make the relationship a dual one where other identities also converge. [31] Some peer mentoring programs promote assimilation among ethnic minority students because of the use of student role models who are perceived as successful in social and educational environments characterized by majority students. [32] These role models then become the people that peer mentees strive to imitate or emulate. [33] A more subtle criticism of peer mentoring refers to their lack of supervision and structure: most peer mentoring programs led by undergraduate students rarely have direct supervision of full-time university staff.

Given the fact that students are led by other students who serve as peer mentors, critics say that university staff may free themselves from their responsibility to listen and help first year students classified as peer mentees, the group with the largest attrition rate in higher education. Without extensive training and supervision, senior students who serve as mentors may offer unreliable guidance to peer mentees. [34] There is little research on what happens within peer mentoring relationships. Maryann Jacobi, in an extensive meta-analysis of mentoring research, concludes by asking, "Does mentoring help students succeed in college? If so, how? Both theoretical and empirical answers to these questions are lacking." [2] Stephanie Budge states:

"The concept of mentoring has become increasingly popular over the past few decades. Mentoring has been advertised as necessary in order for students and employees to flourish in their environment. However, the lack of research concerning peer mentoring programs in particular is surprising. While there is an abundance of articles on the topic of mentoring in the educational setting, authors must be held to more stringent research standards and more definitional consistency. In addition to higher quality research, the fundamental flaws within peer mentoring programs need to be corrected before these programs can reach their full potential on college campuses." [3]

Peer mentoring in higher education usually focuses on social, academic, and cultural skills that can help students graduate from colleges and universities, and how the educational system works (e.g. how to apply for financial aid, how to register for classes, how to write papers, how to choose a major, etc.). The knowledge students receive usually comes from senior students who serve as peer mentors.

Although peer mentoring programs are appealing to most people and seem easy to implement and develop, there is little research to suggest that peer mentoring gives the same results as classical mentoring.

Versus classical mentoring

Morton-Cooper and Palmer distinguish between classical mentoring (also known as primary mentoring) and contract or facilitated mentoring. [35] Classical mentoring is characterized as an informal, often spontaneous enabling relationship between an older mentor and a younger mentee, based on a shared wish to work together, usually for a long period, without financial compensation for the mentor. [15]

Peer mentoring differs from classical mentoring in two aspects. [36] First, in peer mentoring mentors and mentees are close in age, experience, educational level, and they may also overlap in their personal identities, which are usually the criteria for matching, but this may leave junior students vulnerable to peer pressure and unsupervised rivalry. [37] Second, peer mentoring programs are semi-structured planned programs with specific guidelines and frequently with a set number of meetings and activities within a predetermined amount of time. Students who enroll in peer mentoring programs tend to be matched mostly according to major course of study, gender, language of preference, and ethnic background, and those students who share the largest number of similarities tend to become peers in the peer mentoring relationship. Little research is available to know what happens between peer mentors and peer mentees who have different characteristics.

Cross-age

The Handbook of Youth Mentoring provides the following definition of cross-age peer mentoring:

"Peer mentoring involves an interpersonal relationship between two youths of different ages that reflects a greater degree of hierarchical power imbalance than is typical of a friendship and in which the goal is for the older youth to promote one or more aspects of the younger youth's development. Peer mentoring refers to a sustained (long-term), usually formalized (i.e. program-based), developmental relationship. The relationship is "developmental" in that the older peer's goal is to help guide the younger mentee's development in domains such as interpersonal skills, self-esteem and conventional connectedness and attitudes (e.g. future motivation, hopefulness)." [38]

Cross-age mentoring can be distinguished from peer mentoring by the fact that the mentor is in a higher grade level and/or is older than the mentee. Whereas in peer mentoring students of the same age are paired together based on varying levels of achievement. Karcher (2007) also notes:

"Cross-age peer mentoring programs utilize structure, meet for more than ten meetings, do not focus primarily on deficit or problem reduction, and require an age span of at least two years." [39]

Advantages of Cross Age Mentoring

In general, cross-age mentoring programs can involve a tutoring or teaching component, personal mentorship and guidance, or both, and they incorporate many of the advantages of other forms of peer mentorship. Because student mentors are closer in age, knowledge, authority and cognitive development than adult mentors, mentees often feel freer to express ideas, ask questions, and take risks. These similarities also make it easier for mentors to understand personal and academic problems that the mentee may be experiencing, and present solutions in a more understandable and relevant way. Furthermore, unlike same-age peer mentoring, cross-age programs can prevent feelings of inferiority on the part of the mentee when they are mentored or tutored by a student of the same age or status. Thus, mentors who are slightly older than their mentees can take advantage of the higher status provided by their age difference while enjoying increased compatibility with their students. The specific benefits of cross-age mentoring/tutoring are numerous, and are briefly described here in three main categories: increased academic achievement, improved interpersonal skills, and personal development. [40] [41]

Cross-age mentorship, and tutoring programs in particular, support the academic achievement and learning process of both the mentor and the mentee. Mentees benefit from increased personalized attention in a one-on-one setting and can work at their own pace. Sessions are customized for the mentee's individual questions, needs, and learning styles, and mentees gain a greater mastery of the material and concepts, while developing creativity and critical thinking skills. The mentor may also gain a deeper understanding of the material or subject that they are teaching, as this relationship often encourages a deeper dedication to their own studies so that they may more effectively communicate what they've learned. The mentor gains a deeper sense of responsibility, dedication, and pride in being able to help a peer, while both students take pride in mutual accomplishments and successes. Ultimately, cross-age mentorship programs may increase retention and graduation rates, especially among minority students. [40] [41]

In addition to improved learning and transmission of information, the mentorship process allows both students to develop more effective interpersonal communication skills. Mentees learn how to effectively form and pose questions, seek advice, and practice active listening and concentration. Similarly, the mentors gain valuable practice in effective teaching strategies. This format fosters increased self-esteem, empathy and patience in both participants, potentially creating new friendships and breaking down social barriers for students struggling to adjust to a new academic setting. Often the mentor will serve as an important role-model, and can model academic skills and work habits as well as personal values (e.g. dedication to service, empathy, and internal motivation). This relationship can be pivotal for the success of new or underserved students in academia by providing an opportunity for peers to discuss academic issues, career choices, research ideas, and personal matters. [42]

Peer tutoring

A peer tutor is anyone who is of a similar status as the person being tutored. [43] In an undergraduate institution this would usually be other undergraduates, as distinct from the graduate students who may be teaching the writing classes; in a K-12 school this is usually a student from the same grade or higher.[ citation needed ]

Stated by Goodlad and Sinclair, "Peer tutoring is the system of instruction in which learners help each other and learn by teaching. Tutoring schemes have been used in a variety of context, with students teaching students, students teaching school pupils, non-professional adults teaching adults and children, and pupils teaching pupils." [44]

Keith James Topping's work on peer tutoring identified a typology of peer tutoring that includes ten dimensions: 1) curriculum content, 2) constant constellation, 3) year of study, 4) ability, 5) role continuity, 6)place, 7)time, 8) tutee characteristics, 9) tutor characteristics and 10)objectives.   [45]

There are many benefits for both the peer tutor and tutee in this relationship; one aspect of this is that the tutor can establish a rapport with the tutee in a way that a teacher cannot.[ citation needed ] Tutors themselves benefit from working with students. The skills a tutor develops can be applied to other aspects in life including graduate school or a future job. The main skill being that ability to work with people. [46] Peer tutors often succeed better in their respective courses due to the opportunity to help others. They are allowed to spend lots of time working through adversity which ultimately benefits them in the classroom. [46] In the course of tutoring, there could be more benefits than challenges for the tutors themselves. [47] Careers are often influenced from a person's experience in peer tutoring. Peer tutoring help people develop the skill to be a leader. These skills can serve an important role for success in one's career. [48]

Because the peer tutor is seen by the tutee as being more at their own level, advice given by the tutor may be accepted more readily than advice from a teacher. Another key reason for this is that a peer tutor does not give any grade on the paper, whereas a teacher serving in a tutor role may still be perceived as someone who grades papers. Students in peer tutoring programs benefit from creating better attitudes and self concept regardless of academic performance. [43]

Peer tutors skills are based on creating a healthy environment for the tutee. They often give positive feedback, keep the person being tutored on task, give praise, and give reassurance. The tutor also tends to switch up teaching strategies. [49]

In higher education tutorial settings, the benefits of peer tutoring programs also extend to class tutors. [50]

Monitoring and evaluation

Cross-age mentoring programs require careful consideration of the goals, objectives and the available human, physical and financial resources in order to ultimately assess the progress made by the participants and the overall usefulness of the program. Frequent assessment is important as it gives valuable insight into how well the cross-age mentoring curriculum is organized and implemented, and provides positive reinforcement for both the mentor and mentee. Mentors should be pre-screened according to their academic proficiency and attitudes to ensure that they will be able to meet the needs of a mentee. Moreover, mentors will also benefit from ongoing training, supervision and psychological support by teachers, administrators, parents and other members of the community. [40]

In the workplace

Peer mentoring can offer employees a valuable source of support and information in the workplace. [51] Peer mentoring offers a low cost way to train new employees or to upgrade the skills of less experienced workers. [52] Mentees may feel more comfortable learning from a peer than in a hierarchical setting. [53] Mentors as well as mentees may also benefit from the bonds they form with colleagues. [54] In 1978 Edgar Schein described multiple roles for successful mentors in the work setting. [55] New employees who are paired with a mentor are twice as likely to remain in their job than those who do not receive mentorship. [56] [57]

In health care

Peer mentoring has been shown to increase resistance to stress-related anxiety and depression in patients, or clients, affected by chronic illness or mental health issues. Mental health peer mentors and peer support groups help clients change their lifestyle and adhere to a more productive healthy lifestyle by adjusting habits and helping them realize helpful ways of coping and taking on personal responsibility. Peer mentors can also help patients prepare for medical and surgical procedures and adhere to treatment regimes. Peer mentoring has been implemented in programs to support survivors of traumatic brain injury, [58] cancer patients, [59] dialysis patients, [60] diabetics [61] persons with spinal cord injuries, [62] [63] [64] and to reduce HIV transmission and increase adherence to treatment in HIV-positive IV drug users. [65] Peer mentoring is also used in training health care workers. [66] [67] [68] [69]

Other applications

Peer mentoring has also been used to; assist foster youth in receiving resources EOP CSUN, prevent gang violence in schoolchildren [70] and teens, [71] to support young people who have been sexually exploited, [72] to improve the quality of child care among economically disadvantaged first-time mothers, [73] and to improve performance in military recruits. [74]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mentorship</span> Guidance relationship

Mentorship is the patronage, influence, guidance, or direction given by a mentor. A mentor is someone who teaches or gives help and advice to a less experienced and often younger person. In an organizational setting, a mentor influences the personal and professional growth of a mentee. Most traditional mentorships involve having senior employees mentor more junior employees, but mentors do not necessarily have to be more senior than the people they mentor. What matters is that mentors have experience that others can learn from.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tutoring</span> Instructor who gives private lessons

Tutoring is private academic support, usually provided by an expert teacher; someone with deep knowledge or defined expertise in a particular subject or set of subjects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Problem-based learning</span> Learner centric pedagogy

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered pedagogy in which students learn about a subject through the experience of solving an open-ended problem found in trigger material. The PBL process does not focus on problem solving with a defined solution, but it allows for the development of other desirable skills and attributes. This includes knowledge acquisition, enhanced group collaboration and communication.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">English as a second or foreign language</span> Use of English by speakers with different native languages

English as a second or foreign language is the use of English by speakers with different native languages. Language education for people learning English may be known as English as a foreign language (EFL), English as a second language (ESL), English for speakers of other languages (ESOL), English as an additional language (EAL), or English as a New Language (ENL).

The Open University of Israel is a distance-education university in Israel. It is one of ten public universities in Israel recognized by the Council of Higher Education (CHE). The Open University is unique in that it does not require a matriculation certificate, psychometric exam, or other entrance exam for admission to undergraduate studies.

Writing centers provide students with assistance on their papers, projects, reports, multi-modal documents, web pages, and other writerly needs across disciplines. Although writing center staff are often referred to as Tutors, writing centers are primarily places for collaboration in which writers and tutors work together to help writers achieve their goals. Typical services include help with the purpose, structure, function of writing, and are geared toward writers of various levels and fields of study. The goal is to help a writer learn to address the various exigences that they may encounter with the realization that no writing is decontextualized—it always addresses a specific audience. Writing centers may offer one-on-one scheduled tutoring appointments, group tutoring, and writing workshops. Services may also include drop-in hours. Writing tutors do not assign grades to students' writing assignments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extracurricular activity</span> Activity outside regular education

An extracurricular activity (ECA) or extra academic activity (EAA) or cultural activities is an activity, performed by students, that falls outside the realm of the normal curriculum of school, college or university education. Such activities are generally voluntary (as opposed to mandatory), social, philanthropic, and often involve others of the same age. Students and staff direct these activities under faculty sponsorship, although student-led initiatives, such as independent newspapers, are very common. However, sometimes the school principals and teachers also bring in these activities in the school among the students.

In the field of pedagogy, learning by teaching is a method of teaching in which students are made to learn material and prepare lessons to teach it to the other students. There is a strong emphasis on acquisition of life skills along with the subject matter. This method was originally defined by Jean-Pol Martin in the 1980s.

Youth mentoring is the process of matching mentors with young people who need or want a caring, responsible adult in their lives. Adult mentors are usually unrelated to the child or teen and work as volunteers through a community-, school-, or church-based social service program. The goal of youth mentoring programs is to improve the well-being of the child by providing a role model that can support the child academically, socially and/or personally. This goal can be accomplished through school work, communication, and/or activities. Goals and settings within a mentoring program vary by country because of cultural values.

E-mentoring is a means of providing a guided mentoring relationship using online software or email. It allows participants to communicate at their own convenience and beyond time zones since it eliminates the need for them to be in the same physical location. Its programs are often developed to enhance morale, increase productivity, and promote career development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inclusion (education)</span> Where disabled students spend most of their time with non-disabled students

Inclusion in education refers to all students being able to access and gain equal opportunities to education and learning. It arose in the context of special education with an individualized education program or 504 plan, and is built on the notion that it is more effective for students with special needs to have the said mixed experience for them to be more successful in social interactions leading to further success in life. The philosophy behind the implementation of the inclusion model does not prioritize, but still provides for the utilization of special classrooms and special schools for the education of students with disabilities. Inclusive education models are brought into force by educational administrators with the intention of moving away from seclusion models of special education to the fullest extent practical, the idea being that it is to the social benefit of general education students and special education students alike, with the more able students serving as peer models and those less able serving as motivation for general education students to learn empathy.

An at-risk student is a term used in the United States to describe a student who requires temporary or ongoing intervention in order to succeed academically. At risk students, sometimes referred to as at-risk youth or at-promise youth, are also adolescents who are less likely to transition successfully into adulthood and achieve economic self-sufficiency. Characteristics of at-risk students include emotional or behavioral problems, truancy, low academic performance, showing a lack of interest for academics, and expressing a disconnection from the school environment. A school's effort to at-risk students is essential. For example, a study showed that 80% to 87% of variables that led to a school's retention are predictable with linear modeling. In January 2020, Governor Newsom of California changed all references to "at-risk" to "at-promise" in the California Penal Codes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">BHUMI (organisation)</span>

Bhumi is one of India's largest independent youth volunteer non-profit organizations. Bhumi as a platform enables over 30,000 volunteers in more than 12 cities across India for causes like education, environment, animals, community welfare etc. Bhumi helps educate over 25,000 children across India as of 2020.

Supplemental instruction (SI) is an academic support model that uses peer learning to improve university student retention and student success in high-attrition courses. Supplemental Instruction is used worldwide by institutions of higher learning. SI is also called "Peer-Assisted Study Sessions," "PASS" or "SI-PASS" in parts of the Africa, Europe, North America, and Oceania. According to an article in the peer-reviewed journal, Research and Teaching in Developmental Education, "Since its introduction in 1974 at the University of Missouri-Kansas City by Deanna C. Martin, Supplemental Instruction (SI) has been implemented, studied, and evaluated for its effectiveness across a variety of disciplines and institutional levels." The article further noted that for some students,

"SI is a program that works. Since SI is an enrichment program designed to target high risk courses, it takes the emphasis off the individual student's projected performance. A high risk course, as defined repeatedly in the literature, is any course in which unsuccessful enrollment exceeds 30%."

Undergraduate research is often described as the exploration of a specific research topic by an undergraduate student that seeks to make an original contribution to the discipline. It is a fairly recent concept in the academic community, with roots in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The creation of MIT's Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program (UROP) in 1969 encouraged an explosion in popularity. Undergraduate research programs were fairly common by the 1990s, and are currently accessible in many countries. Students may work on their own, collaborate with faculty members and other students, or seek enrollment in a research program within their field. Both faculty members and students experience advantages and disadvantages when collaborating on research. Although historically centered in the sciences, undergraduate research is now conducted in most fields. The research approach and preparation will differ depending on the disciplinary field and the specific research focus. Undergraduate research is often required for acceptance into graduate and professional schools.

Classwide Peer Tutoring (CWPT) is a variation of peer-mediated instruction that has been used in elementary, middle school, and high school classrooms. In CWPT students form pairs and take turns in the roles of tutor and student. Students earn points for their teams by participating in the tutoring and the winning team is recognized. Researchers have investigated CWPT's effectiveness in several different academic areas.

Workplace mentoring is a “learning partnership between employees for purposes of sharing technical information, institutional knowledge and insight with respect to a particular occupation, profession, organization or endeavor”. If this process is done correctly, the organization may reduce turnover and increase productivity. Workplace mentoring is not confined to a certain age and is a relationship that develops though close interactions with a mentor and their protégé. Mentoring practices differ from other developmental relationships in the workplace, such as supervision and leadership.

Mentoring Artists for Women's Art (MAWA) is a feminist visual arts education center based in Winnipeg, Manitoba. Created in 1984, this non-profit organization encourages and supports the intellectual and creative development of women in the visual arts by providing an ongoing forum for education and critical dialogue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Society for the Teaching of Psychology</span>

The Society for the Teaching of Psychology (STP) is Division 2 of the American Psychological Association. It is an academic society that promotes effective pedagogy while providing supports for teachers of psychology at all levels. Although it is one of the divisions of the American Psychological Association, it does not require its members to join the APA. The STP provides access to peer-reviewed teaching resources, such as course syllabi and e-books, free of charge to the general public through its website. Some sections of the website require STP membership to gain access.

The Igbo apprentice system, also known as the Igbo trade apprentice system and commonly referred to as ′Igba-Odibo/Igba-Boi/Imu-Ahia/Imu-Oru′, is a framework of formal and informal indentured agreements between parties that ultimately facilitate burgeoning entrepreneurial communities within the Igbos. It is an economic model practiced widely by Igbos and originated in South-Eastern Nigeria. Its purposes were and still remains to spur economic growth and stability, and sustainable livelihood by financing and investing in human resources through vocational training.

References

  1. ↑ Bozeman, B.; Feeney, M. K. (October 2007). "Toward a useful theory of mentoring: A conceptual analysis and critique". Administration & Society. 39 (6): 719–739. doi:10.1177/0095399707304119. S2CID   143989012.
  2. 1 2 Jacobi, Maryann (1991). "Mentoring and Undergraduate Academic Success: A Literature Review". Review of Educational Research. 61 (4): 505–532. doi:10.3102/00346543061004505. S2CID   145242695.
  3. 1 2 Budge, Stephanie (2006). "Peer Mentoring in Postsecondary Education: Implications for Research and Practice". Journal of College Reading and Learning. 37: 71–85. doi:10.1080/10790195.2006.10850194. S2CID   154402535.
  4. 1 2 Daloz, L. A. (1990). Effective Teaching and Mentoring. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. p. 20.
  5. ↑ Bozeman, Barry; Feeney, Mary K. (2008). "Mentor Matching". Administration & Society. 40 (5): 465–482. doi:10.1177/0095399708320184. S2CID   55959612.
  6. ↑ Steve Grbac, "How to implement a 'Peer Support' program in a P-6 School," Scotch College Junior School, Melbourne Australia, June 2008.
  7. ↑ Sosik, John J.; Godshalk, Veronica M. (2000). "The Role of Gender in Mentoring: Implications for Diversified and Homogenous Mentoring Relationships". Journal of Vocational Behavior. 57: 102–122. doi:10.1006/jvbe.1999.1734.
  8. ↑ Sanchez, R. J.; Bauer, T. N.; Paronto, M. E. (2006). "Peer-mentoring freshman: Implication for satisfaction, commitment, and retention to graduate". Academy of Management Learning & Education. 5 (1): 25–37. doi:10.5465/AMLE.2006.20388382.
  9. 1 2 3 Cramer, R. J.; Prentice-Dunn, S. (2007). "Caring for the whole person: Guidelines for advancing undergraduate mentorship". College Student Journal. 41 (4): 771–778.
  10. ↑ Murray, M. (1991). Beyond the myths and the magic of mentoring: How to facilitate an effective mentoring program. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
  11. ↑ Paulo Freire, "Mentoring the mentor: a critical dialogue with Paulo Freire," Counterpoints: Studies in the Postmodern Theory of Education, Vol 60, 1997, ISBN   0-8204-3798-0
  12. ↑ Helen Cowie, Patti Wallace, Peer Support in Action: From Bystanding to Standing By, Sage Publications Ltd; 1st edition February 2001; ISBN   0-7619-6353-7
  13. ↑ Wright, S.; Cowen, E. L. (1985). "The effects of peer teaching on student perceptions of class environment, adjustment and academic performance". American Journal of Community Psychology. 13 (4): 417–433. doi:10.1007/bf00911217. PMID   4050750. S2CID   27101335.
  14. ↑ Sandy Hazouri, Miriam Smith McLaughlin, Peer listening in the middle school: training activities for students. Educational Media Corp., 1991. ISBN   978-0-932796-34-9
  15. 1 2 Philip, Kate (August 2000). "mentoring and young people". the encyclopedia of informal education. infed. Retrieved 2005-11-16.
  16. ↑ Parsloe, E.; Wray, M. J. (2000). Coaching and mentoring: practical methods to improve learning. Kogan Page. ISBN   978-0-7494-3118-1.
  17. ↑ Grant-Vallone, Elisa J., Ensher, Ellen A., "Effects of Peer Mentoring on Types of Mentor Support, Program Satisfaction and Graduate Student Stress: A Dyadic Perspective." Journal of College Student Development, v. 41 n. 6 pp. 637-42, Nov-Dec 2000.
  18. ↑ Allen, Tammy D.; McManus, Stacy E.; Russell, Joyce E.A. (1999). "Newcomer Socialization and Stress: Formal Peer Relationships as a Source of Support" (PDF). Journal of Vocational Behavior. 54 (3): 453–470. doi:10.1006/jvbe.1998.1674. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-20. Retrieved 2011-02-23.
  19. ↑ Thile, EL; Matt, GE (1995). "The Ethnic Mentor Undergraduate Program: A Brief Description and Preliminary Findings". Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development . 23 (2): 116–26. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1912.1995.tb00605.x.
  20. ↑ Bizzari, J.C. (1995). "Women, role models, mentors, and career". Educational Horizons. 73 (3): 145–152.
  21. ↑ Mohd Shafiaai, Mohd Syameer Firdaus; Kadirvelu, Amudha; Pamidi, Narendra (2020-12-07). "Peer mentoring experience on becoming a good doctor: student perspectives". BMC Medical Education. 20 (1): 494. doi: 10.1186/s12909-020-02408-7 . ISSN   1472-6920. PMC   7720515 . PMID   33287807.
  22. ↑ "Continuities – Lessons for the Future of Education from the IDRA Coca-Cola Valued Youth Program," Intercultural Development Research Association, San Antonio, Texas, 2009.
  23. ↑ Cardenas, Jose A., et al. "Valued Youth Program: Dropout Prevention Strategies for At-Risk Students. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, Illinois, April 1991. 25 pages.
  24. ↑ Stoltz AD. "The relationship between peer mentoring program participation and successful transition to high school." (Dissertation). University of California, Davis, 2005.
  25. ↑ Twomey, J.L. (1991). "Academic performance and retention in a peer mentor program at a two-year campus of a four-year institution. Research report." Alamagordo, NM: New Mexico State University.
  26. ↑ Lahman MP. "To What Extent Does a Peer Mentoring Program Aid in Student Retention?" Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the National Communication Association. Chicago, 1999:12.
  27. ↑ Clinard, L. M.; Ariav, T. (1998). "What mentoring does for mentors: A cross-cultural perspective". European Journal of Teacher Education. 21 (1): 91–108. doi:10.1080/0261976980210109. S2CID   144927696.
  28. ↑ Outhred, T, & Chester, A. (2010). The Experience of Class Tutors in a Peer Tutoring Programme: A Novel Theoretical Framework, Australasian Journal of Peer Learning, 3(1), 12-23.
  29. ↑ Fields, C.D. (1996). "Black peer mentors, cooperative advocacy beneficial to morale." Black Issues in Higher Education, pp. 13, 24.
  30. ↑ Tyler, J.L. (1994). "The death of mentoring." Hospitals & Health Networks, pp. 68, 19, 84.
  31. ↑ Cain, M (1994). "Mentoring as identity exchange: conflicts and connections". Feminist Teacher. 8 (3): 112–18.
  32. ↑ Thomas, Kecia M.; Hu, Changya; Gewin, Amanda G.; Bingham, Kecia; Yanchus, Nancy (2005). "The Roles of Protégé Race, Gender, and Proactive Socialization Attempts on Peer Mentoring". Advances in Developing Human Resources. 7 (4): 540–555. doi:10.1177/1523422305279681. S2CID   144237413.
  33. ↑ Mosenkis, S.L. (1994). "The real mentoring trap". Library Journal. 119 (2): 8.
  34. ↑ Merriam, S (1983). "Mentors and proteges: A critical review of the literature". Adult Education Quarterly. 33 (3): 161–173. doi:10.1177/074171368303300304. S2CID   145507583.
  35. ↑ Alison Morton-Cooper, Anne Palmer Mentoring, preceptorship and clinical supervision: a guide to professional roles in clinical practice. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, 2000; ISBN   0-632-04967-7, pp. 44-45.
  36. ↑ Linda Holbeche, (1996) "Peer mentoring: the challenges and opportunities", Career Development International, Vol. 1 No. 7, pp. 24 - 27.
  37. ↑ Pompper, D.; Adams, J. (2006). "Under the microscope: Gender and mentor-protege relationships". Public Relations Review. 32 (3): 309–315. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2006.05.019.
  38. ↑ DuBois, David L.; Michael J. Karcher (2005). Handbook of Youth Mentoring. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications Ltd. ISBN   0-7619-2977-0.
  39. ↑ "Michael Karcher (2007) "Cross-age Peer Mentoring," Research in Action, Issue 7, 2007, MENTOR/National Mentoring Partnership, Alexandria, VA, p. 8" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-01-02. Retrieved 2011-02-28.
  40. 1 2 3 Gaustad, Joan. Peer and Cross-Age Tutoring. ERIC Digest, Number 79. ERIC #:ED354608 Publication Date: 1993-03-00
  41. 1 2 Kalkowski, Page. Peer and Cross-Age Tutoring. School Improvement Research Series. NWREL. March 1995.
  42. ↑ Gensemer P. "Effectiveness of Cross-Age and Peer Mentoring Programs." (Monograph) 2000.
  43. 1 2 Roswai, Glenn M.; Mims, Aquilla A.; Evans, Michael D.; Smith, Brenda; Young, Mary; Burch, Michael; Croce, Ronald; Horvat, Michael A.; Block, Martin (1995). "Effects of Collaborative Peer Tutoring on Urban Seventh Graders". The Journal of Educational Research. 88 (5): 275–279. doi:10.1080/00220671.1995.9941311. ISSN   0022-0671. JSTOR   27541986.
  44. ↑ Goodlad, Sinclair; Hirst, Beverley (1989). Peer Tutoring. A Guide to Learning by Teaching. New York: Nichols. p. 1. ISBN   0-89397-342-4.
  45. ↑ Topping, K. J. (1 October 1996). "The effectiveness of peer tutoring in further and higher education: A typology and review of the literature". Higher Education. 32 (3): 321–345. doi:10.1007/BF00138870. ISSN   1573-174X. S2CID   2430976.
  46. 1 2 Bond, Rebecca; Castagnera, Elizabeth (2006). "Peer Supports and Inclusive Education: An Underutilized Resource". Theory into Practice. 45 (3): 224–229. doi:10.1207/s15430421tip4503_4. ISSN   0040-5841. JSTOR   40071601. S2CID   144653148.
  47. ↑ Freddolino, Paul P.; Lee, Vincent W. P.; Law, Chi-Kwong; Ho, Cindy (2010-10-29). "To Help and to Learn: An Exploratory Study of Peer Tutors Teaching Older Adults about Technology". Journal of Technology in Human Services. 28 (4): 217–239. doi:10.1080/15228835.2011.565458. ISSN   1522-8835. S2CID   144504016.
  48. ↑ Van Dam, Drew J.; Eller, James L.; Swezey, James A. (2021-10-02). "Developing Leadership as a Federal Service Academy Peer Tutor". Journal of College Reading and Learning. 51 (4): 250–266. doi:10.1080/10790195.2021.1928567. ISSN   1079-0195. S2CID   236268816.
  49. ↑ Boraks, Nancy; Allen, Amy Roseman (1977). "A Program to Enhance Peer Tutoring". The Reading Teacher. 30 (5): 479–484. ISSN   0034-0561. JSTOR   20194310.
  50. ↑ Outhred, T.; Chester, A. (2010). "The Experience of Class Tutors in a Peer Tutoring Programme: A Novel Theoretical Framework | Australasian Journal of Peer Learning 3(1), 12-23)". Journal of Peer Learning. 3 (1): 12–23.
  51. ↑ Ragins BR, Kram KE. The handbook of mentoring at work: theory, research, and practice. Los Angeles: Sage Publications, 2007.
  52. ↑ Ensher, Ellen A.; Thomas, Craig; Murphy, Susan E. (2001). "Comparison of Traditional, Step-Ahead, and Peer Mentoring on Protégés' Support, Satisfaction, and Perceptions of Career Success: A Social Exchange Perspective". Journal of Business and Psychology. 15 (3): 419–438. doi:10.1023/A:1007870600459. S2CID   142659096.
  53. ↑ Bozeman, B.; Feeney, M. K. (2008). "Public Management Mentoring: A Three-Tier Model". Review of Public Personnel Administration. 29 (2): 134. doi:10.1177/0734371X08325768. S2CID   154417935.
  54. ↑ McDaugall, M.; Beattie, R. S. (1997). "Peer Mentoring at Work: The Nature and Outcomes of Non-Hierarchical Developmental Relationships". Management Learning. 28 (4): 423. doi:10.1177/1350507697284003. S2CID   145063241.
  55. ↑ Schein, Edgar H. (June 1978). Career Dynamics: Matching Individual and Organizational Needs. Addison-Wesley. ISBN   0-201-06834-6.
  56. ↑ Kaye, Beverly; Jordan-Evans, Sharon (2005). Love 'Em or Lose Em: Getting Good People to Stay. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc. p.  117. ISBN   978-1-57675-327-9.
  57. ↑ Orpen, Christopher (1995). "The Effects of Mentoring on Employees' Career Success". The Journal of Social Psychology. 135 (5): 667–668. doi:10.1080/00224545.1995.9712242.
  58. ↑ Hibbard MR, Cantor J, Charatz H, Rosenthal R, Ashman T, Gundersen N, et al. "Peer support in the community: Initial findings of a mentoring program for individuals with traumatic brain injury and their families." The Journal of head trauma rehabilitation, 2002;17(2):112.
  59. ↑ Rini C, Lawsin C, Austin J, DuHamel K, Markarian Y, Burkhalter J, et al. "Peer mentoring and survivors' stories for cancer patients: positive effects and some cautionary notes." Journal of Clinical Oncology 2007;25(1):163.
  60. ↑ Perry, E; Swartz, J; Brown, S; Smith, D; Kelly, G; Swartz, R (2005). "Peer mentoring: a culturally sensitive approach to end-of-life planning for long-term dialysis patients". American Journal of Kidney Diseases. 46 (1): 111–119. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2005.03.018. PMID   15983964.
  61. ↑ Riva Greenberg, "Peer Mentoring Powerful for Diabetes Behavior Change", The Huffington Post , Jan 19, 2011.
  62. ↑ Sherman, JE; DeVinney, DJ; Sperling, KB (2004). "Social Support and Adjustment After Spinal Cord Injury: Influence of Past Peer-Mentoring Experiences and Current Live-In Partner". Rehabilitation Psychology. 49 (2): 140. doi:10.1037/0090-5550.49.2.140.
  63. ↑ Veith, EM; Sherman, JE; Pellino, TA; Yasui, NY (2006). "Qualitative analysis of the peer-mentoring relationship among individuals with spinal cord injury". Rehabilitation Psychology. 51 (4): 289–298. doi:10.1037/0090-5550.51.4.289.
  64. ↑ Spinal Cord Injury Peer Mentoring
  65. ↑ Purcell DW, Latka MH, Metsch LR, Latkin CA, Gómez CA, Mizuno Y, et al. "Results from a randomized controlled trial of a peer-mentoring intervention to reduce HIV transmission and increase access to care and adherence to HIV medications among HIV-seropositive injection drug users." JAIDS: Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2007;46:S35.
  66. ↑ Angelini, D.J. (1995). "Mentoring in the career development of hospital staff nurses: Models and practices". Journal of Professional Nursing. 11 (2): 89–97. doi:10.1016/s8755-7223(05)80024-9. PMID   7730509.
  67. ↑ Carol Kostovich, Karen Saban, Eileen Collins, "Becoming a Nurse Researcher: The Importance of Mentorship," Nursing Science Quarterly, October 1, 2010 v. 23, pp. 281-286.
  68. ↑ Glass, N; Walter, R (2000). "An experience of peer mentoring with student nurses: enhancement of personal and professional growth". Journal of Nursing Education. 39 (4): 1–6. doi:10.3928/0148-4834-20000401-05. PMID   10782759.
  69. ↑ Pollock J, Georgievski Z. "Peer mentoring in undergraduate clinical education of orthoptic students." Paper presented at the HERDSA Annual International Conference. Melbourne, 12-15 July 1999. [ permanent dead link ]
  70. ↑ Sheehan K, DiCara JA, LeBailly S, Christoffel KK. "Adapting the gang model: Peer mentoring for violence prevention." Pediatrics 1999;104(1):50.
  71. ↑ Burnette, A.P. (1995). "Mentoring: one solution to teen violence". The Negro Educational Review. 46: 87–94.
  72. ↑ Buck, G., Lawrence, A., & Ragonese, E. (2017). Exploring Peer Mentoring as a Form of Innovative Practice with Young People at Risk of Child Sexual Exploitation. British Journal of Social Work, 47(6), 1745-1763.
  73. ↑ Murphy CA, Cupples ME, Percy A, Halliday HL, Stewart MC. "Peer-mentoring for first-time mothers from areas of socio-economic disadvantage: a qualitative study within a randomised controlled trial." BMC Health Services Research 2008;8(1):46.
  74. ↑ Keller, RT; Greenberg, N; Bobo, WV; Roberts, P; Jones, N; Orman, DT (2005). "Soldier peer mentoring care and support-bringing psychological awareness to the front". Military Medicine. 170 (5): 355–361. doi: 10.7205/MILMED.170.5.355 . PMID   15974199.[ permanent dead link ]

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.