Obstetric fistula

Last updated
Obstetric fistula
Prolonged obstructed labour sequelae.jpg
Diagram of maternal and foetal sequelae of prolonged obstructed labour, highlighting areas that are at high risk of developing obstetric fistula(s).
Specialty Urology, gynecology
Symptoms Incontinence of urine or feces [1]
Complications Depression, infertility, social isolation [1]
Usual onset Childbirth [1]
Risk factors Obstructed labor, poor access to medical care, malnutrition, teenage pregnancy [1] [2]
Diagnostic method Based on symptoms, supported methylene blue [3]
PreventionAppropriate use of cesarean section [1]
TreatmentSurgery, urinary catheter, counseling [1] [3]
Frequency2 million (developing world), rare (developed world) [1]

Obstetric fistula is a medical condition in which a hole develops in the birth canal as a result of childbirth. [1] [2] This can be between the vagina and rectum, ureter, or bladder. [1] [4] It can result in incontinence of urine or feces. [1] Complications may include depression, infertility, and social isolation. [1]

Contents

Risk factors include obstructed labor, poor access to medical care, malnutrition, and teenage pregnancy. [1] [2] The underlying mechanism is poor blood flow to the affected area for a prolonged period of time. [1] Diagnosis is generally based on symptoms and may be supported by use of methylene blue. [3]

Obstetric fistulae are almost entirely preventable with appropriate use of cesarean section. [1] Treatment is typically by surgery. [1] If treated early, the use of a urinary catheter may help with healing. [3] Counseling may also be useful. [1] An estimated 2 million people in sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, the Arab region, and Latin America have the condition, with about 75,000 new cases developing a year. [1] It occurs very rarely in the developed world and is considered a disease of poverty. [5]

Signs and symptoms

Symptoms of obstetric fistula include:

Other effects of obstetric fistulae include stillborn babies due to prolonged labor, which happens 85% to 100% of the time, [12] [13] [14] [15] severe ulcerations of the vaginal tract, "foot drop", which is the paralysis of the lower limbs caused by nerve damage, making it impossible to walk, [7] [16] [17] infection of the fistula forming an abscess, [8] and up to two-thirds of sufferers become amenorrhoeic. [18]

Obstetric fistulae have far-reaching physical, social, economic, and psychological consequences for the women affected. According to UNFPA, "Due to the prolonged obstructed labour, the baby almost inevitably dies, and the parent is left with chronic incontinence. Unable to control the flow of urine or faeces, or both, they may be abandoned by their spouse and family and ostracized by their community. Without treatment, their prospects for work and family life are virtually nonexistent." [19]

Physical

The most direct consequence of an obstetric fistula is the constant leakage of urine, feces, and blood as a result of a hole that forms between the vagina and bladder or rectum. [20] This leaking has both physical and societal penalties. The acid in the urine, feces, and blood causes severe burn wounds on the legs from the continuous dripping. [21] Nerve damage that can result from the leaking can cause women to struggle with walking and eventually lose mobility. In an attempt to avoid the dripping, women limit their intake of water and liquid, which can ultimately lead to dangerous cases of dehydration. Ulceration and infections can persist, as well as kidney disease and kidney failure, which can each lead to death. Further, only a quarter of women who develop a fistula in their first birth are able to have a living baby, and therefore have minuscule chances of conceiving a healthy baby later on. Some, due to obstetric fistulae and other complications from childbirth, do not survive. [15]

Social

Physical consequences of obstetric fistulae lead to severe sociocultural stigmatization for various reasons. For example, in Burkina Faso, most citizens do not believe an obstetric fistula to be a medical condition, but as a divine punishment or a curse for disloyal or disrespectful behavior. [22] Other sub-Saharan cultures view offspring as an indicator of a family's wealth. A woman who is unable to successfully produce children as assets for her family is believed to make her and her family socially and economically inferior. A patient's incontinence and pain also render her unable to perform household chores and childrearing as a wife and as a mother, thus devaluing her. [23] Other misconceptions about obstetric fistulae are that they are caused by venereal diseases or are divine punishment for sexual misconduct. [24]

As a result, many girls are divorced or abandoned by their husbands and partners, disowned by family, ridiculed by friends, and even isolated by health workers. [16] Divorce rates for women who have an obstetric fistula range from 50% [25] [26] [27] [28] to as high as 89%. [24] Now marginalized members of society, girls are forced to live on the edges of their villages and towns, often in isolation in a hut where they will likely die from starvation or an infection in the birth canal. The unavoidable odor is viewed as offensive, thus their removal from society is seen as essential. Accounts of women who develop obstetric fistulae proclaim that their lives have been reduced to the leaking of urine, feces, and blood because they are no longer capable or allowed to participate in traditional activities, including the duties of wife and mother. Because such consequences highly stigmatize and marginalize the woman, the intense loneliness and shame can lead to clinical depression and suicidal thoughts. Some women have formed small groups and resorted to walking to seek medical help, where their characteristic odor makes them a target for sub-Saharan predatory wildlife, further endangering their lives. This trip can take on average 12 hours to complete. [29] Moreover, women are sometimes forced to turn to commercial sex work as a means of survival because the extreme poverty and social isolation that result from obstetric fistulae eliminate all other income opportunities. With only 7.5% of women with fistulae able to access treatment, the vast majority of women end up with the consequences of obstructed and prolonged labor simply because options and access to help is so limited. [30]

Psychological

Some common psychological consequences that women with a fistula face are the despair from losing their child, the humiliation from their smell, and inability to perform their family roles. [13] Additionally, a fear of developing another fistula in future pregnancies exists. [31]

Obstetric fistula is not only debilitating physically, but emotionally. A woman is presented with an array of psychological trauma that she must oftentimes deal with herself unless provided with ample resources. Oftentimes ostracized by her community, a woman with obstetric fistula tends to face these issues on her own. In a study of The lived experience of Malawian women with obstetric fistula, the immense psychological trauma is addressed: "For these women, internalizing this constant struggle leads to psychological morbidity." [32] It was striking how many women discussed constant sadness and giving up hope in their interviews."

Although the psychological impacts center around the woman experiencing the fistula, others around them, and especially loved ones, feel the impact as well. The same study references this: "This attitude was often shared by their family members, both husbands and female relatives." [32]

Women with obstetric fistula face severe mental health issues. [33] Among women with obstetric fistula from Bangladesh and Ethiopia 97% screened positive for potential mental health dysfunctions and about 30% had major depression. [33]

Risk factors

In less-developed countries, obstetric fistulae usually develop as a result of prolonged labor when a cesarean section cannot be obtained. [34] Over the course of the three to five days of labor, the unborn child presses against the mother's vagina very tightly, cutting off blood flow to the surrounding tissues between the vagina and the rectum and between the vagina and the bladder, causing the tissues to disintegrate and rot away. [7] [16] [18]

Obstetric fistulae can also be caused by poorly performed abortions, [35] and pelvic fracture, cancer, or radiation therapy targeted at the pelvic area, inflammatory bowel disease (such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis). Other potential causes for the development of obstetric fistulae are sexual abuse and rape, especially in conflict/postconflict areas, [36] and other trauma, such as surgical trauma. [16] [37]

In the developed world, such as the US, the primary cause of obstetric fistulae, particularly rectovaginal fistulae, is the use of episiotomy and forceps. [38] Primary risk factors include early or closely spaced pregnancies and lack of access to emergency obstetric care. For example, a 1983 study in Nigeria found that 54.8% of the women affected were under 20 years of age, and 64.4% gave birth at home or in poorly equipped local clinics. [27] When available at all, cesarean sections and other medical interventions are usually not performed until after tissue damage has already been done.[ citation needed ]

Social, political, and economic causes that indirectly lead to the development of obstetric fistulae concern issues of poverty, malnutrition, lack of education, early marriage and childbirth, the role and status of women in developing countries, harmful traditional practices, sexual violence, and lack of good quality or accessible maternal and health care. [7] [15] [16] [39]

Poverty

Poverty is the main indirect cause of obstetric fistulae around the world. As obstructed labor and obstetric fistulae account for 8% of maternal deaths worldwide [40] and "a 60-fold difference in gross national product per person shows up as a 120-fold difference in maternal mortality ratio," impoverished countries produce higher maternal mortality rates and thus higher obstetric fistula rates. [41] Furthermore, impoverished countries not only have low incomes, but also lack adequate infrastructure, trained and educated professionals, resources, and a centralized government that exist in developed nations to effectively eradicate obstetric fistulae. [42]

According to UNFPA, "Generally accepted estimates suggest that 2.0-3.5 million women live with obstetric fistulae in the developing world, and between 50,000 and 100,000 new cases develop each year. All but eliminated from the developed world, obstetric fistula continues to affect the poorest of the poor: women and girls living in some of the most resource-starved remote regions in the world." [43]

Malnutrition

One reason that poverty produces such high rates of fistula cases is the malnutrition that exists in such areas. [15] Lack of money and access to proper nutrition, [44] as well as vulnerability to diseases that exist in impoverished areas because of limited basic health care and disease prevention methods, cause inhabitants of these regions to experience stunted growth. Sub-Saharan Africa is one such environment where the shortest women have on average lighter babies and more difficulties during birth when compared with full-grown women. This stunted growth causes expectant mothers to have skeletons unequipped for proper birth, such as an underdeveloped pelvis. [15] This weak and underdeveloped bone structure increases the chances that the baby will get stuck in the pelvis during birth, cutting off circulation and leading to tissue necrosis. Because of the correlation between malnutrition, stunted growth, and birthing difficulties, maternal height can at times be used as a measure for expected labor difficulties. [41]

Lack of education

High levels of poverty also lead to low levels of education among impoverished women concerning maternal health. This lack of information in combination with obstacles preventing rural women to easily travel to and from hospitals lead many to arrive at the birthing process without prenatal care. This can cause a development of unplanned complications that may arise during home births, in which traditional techniques are used. These techniques often fail in the event of unplanned emergencies, leading women to go to the hospital for care too late, desperately ill, and therefore vulnerable to the risks of anesthesia and surgery that must be used on them. In a study of women who had prenatal care and those who had unbooked emergency births, "the death rate in the booked-healthy group was as good as that in many developed countries, [but] the death rate in the unbooked emergencies was the same as the death rate in England in the 16th and 17th centuries." In this study, 62 unbooked emergency women were diagnosed with obstetric fistulae out of 7,707 studied, in comparison to three diagnosed booked mothers out of 15,020 studied. [41] In addition, studies find that education is associated with lower desired family size, greater use of contraceptives, and increased use of professional medical services. Educated families are also more likely to be able to afford health care, especially maternal healthcare. [45]

Early childbirth

In sub-Saharan Africa, many girls enter into arranged marriages soon after menarche (usually between the ages of 9 and 15). Social factors and economic factors contribute to this practice of early marriages. Socially, some grooms want to ensure their brides are virgins when they get married, so an earlier marriage is desirable. [44] Economically, the bride price received and having one less person to feed in the family helps alleviate the financial burdens of the bride's family. [46] Early marriages lead to early childbirth, which increases the risk of obstructed labor, since young mothers who are poor and malnourished may have underdeveloped pelvises. In fact, obstructed labor is responsible for 76 to 97% of obstetric fistulae. [12]

Lack of healthcare

Even women who do make it to the hospital may not get proper treatment. Countries that suffer from poverty, civil and political unrest or conflict, and other dangerous public health issues such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis often suffer from a severe burden and breakdown within the healthcare system. This breakdown puts many people at risk, specifically women. Many hospitals within these conditions have shortages of staff, supplies, and other forms of medical technology that would be necessary to perform reconstructive obstetric fistula repair.[ citation needed ] There is a shortage of doctors in rural Africa, and studies find that the doctors and nurses who do exist in rural Africa often do not show up for work. [45]

Poverty hinders women from being able to access normal and emergency obstetric care because of long distances and expensive procedures. For some women, the closest maternal care facility can be more than 50 km away. In Kenya, a study by the Ministry of Health found that the "rugged landscape, long distances to health facilities, and societal preferences for delivery with a traditional birth attendant contributed to delays in accessing necessary obstetric care." [47] Emergency cesarean sections, which can help avoid fistulae caused by prolonged vaginal deliveries, are very expensive.[ citation needed ]

Status of women

In developing countries, women who are affected by obstetric fistulae do not necessarily have full agency over their bodies or their households. Rather, their husbands and other family members have control in determining the healthcare that the women receive. [15] For example, a woman's family may refuse medical examinations for the patient by male doctors, but female doctors may be unavailable, thus barring women from prenatal care. [44] Furthermore, many societies believe that women are supposed to suffer in childbirth, thus are less inclined to support maternal health efforts. [45]

Prevention

Prevention is the key to ending fistulae. UNFPA states that, "Ensuring skilled birth attendance at all births and providing emergency obstetric care for all women who develop complications during delivery would make fistula as rare in developing countries as it is in the industrialized world." [1] In addition, access to health services and education – including family planning, gender equality, higher living standards, child marriage, and human rights – must be addressed to reduce the marginalization of women and girls. Reducing marginalization in these areas could reduce maternal disability and death by at least 20%. [1]

Prevention comes in the form of access to obstetrical care, support from trained health care professionals throughout pregnancy, providing access to family planning, promoting the practice of spacing between births, supporting women in education, and postponing early marriage. Fistula prevention also involves many strategies to educate local communities about the cultural, social, and physiological factors of that condition and contribute to the risk for fistulae. One of these strategies involves organizing community-level awareness campaigns to educate women about prevention methods such as proper hygiene and care during pregnancy and labor. [48] Prevention of prolonged obstructed labor and fistulae should preferably begin as early as possible in each woman's life. For example, improved nutrition and outreach programs to raise awareness about the nutritional needs of children to prevent malnutrition, as well as improve the physical maturity of young mothers, are important fistula prevention strategies. It is also important to ensure access to timely and safe delivery during childbirth: measures include availability and provision of emergency obstetric care, as well as quick and safe cesarean sections for women in obstructed labor. Some organizations train local nurses and midwives to perform emergency cesarean sections to avoid vaginal delivery for young mothers who have underdeveloped pelvises. [29] Midwives located in the local communities where obstetric fistulae are prevalent can contribute to promoting health practices that help prevent future development of obstetric fistulae. NGOs also work with local governments, like the government of Niger, to offer free cesarean sections, further preventing the onset of obstetric fistulae. [15]

Promoting education for girls is also a key factor to preventing fistulae in the long term. Former fistula patients often act as "community fistula advocates" or "ambassadors of hope", a UNFPA-sponsored initiative, to educate the community. [49] These survivors help current patients, educate pregnant mothers, and dispel cultural myths that obstetric fistulae are caused by adultery or evil spirits. [37] [50] [51] Successful ambassador programs are in place in Kenya, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, and Liberia. [15]

Several organizations have developed effective fistula prevention strategies. One, the Tanzanian Midwives Association, works to prevent fistulae by improving clinical healthcare for women, encouraging the delay of early marriages and childbearing years, and helping the local communities to advocate for women's rights. [39]

Treatment

Patients at the Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital in Ethiopia are all treated free of charge. Addis-ababa-fistula-hospital.jpg
Patients at the Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital in Ethiopia are all treated free of charge.

Surgery

The nature of the injury varies depending on the size and location of the fistula, so a surgeon with experience is needed to improvise on the spot. [52] Before the person undergoes surgery, treatment and evaluation are needed for conditions including anemia, malnutrition, and malaria. Quality treatment in low-resource settings are possible (as in the cases of Nigeria and Ethiopia). [16]

Treatment is available through reconstructive surgery. [53] Primary fistula repair has a 91% success rate. [46] The corrective surgery costs about US$100–400, [54] and the cost for the entire procedure, which includes the actual surgery, postoperative care, and rehabilitation support, is estimated to cost $300–450. Initial surgeries done by inadequately trained doctors and midwives increase the number of follow-up surgeries that must be performed to restore full continence. [46] Successful surgery enables women to live normal lives and have more children, but it is recommended to have a cesarean section to prevent the fistula from recurring. Postoperative care is vital to prevent infection. Some women are not candidates for this surgery due to other health problems. In those cases, fecal diversion can help the patient, but not necessarily cure them. [55]

Besides physical treatment, mental health services are also needed to rehabilitate fistula patients, who experience psychological trauma from being ostracized by the community and from fear of developing fistulae again. A study on the first formal counseling program for fistula survivors in Eritrea shows positive results, whereby counseling significantly improved the women's self-esteem, knowledge about fistulae and fistula prevention, and behavioral intentions for "health maintenance and social reintegration" following surgery. [56]

Challenges

Challenges with regards to treatment include the very high number of women needing reconstructive surgery, access to facilities and trained surgeons, and the cost of treatment. For many women, US$300 is a price they cannot afford. Access and availability of treatment also vary widely across different sub-Saharan countries. Certain regions also do not have enough maternal care clinics that are equipped, willing to treat fistula patients, and adequately staffed. At the Evangelical Hospital of Bemberéke in Benin, only one expatriate volunteer obstetrics and gynecology doctor is available a few months per year, with one certified nurse and seven informal hospital workers. [57] In all of Niger, two medical centers treat fistula patients. [46] In Nigeria, more dedicated health professionals operate on up to 1,600 women with a fistula per year. [58] The world is currently severely under capacity for treating the problem; it would take up to 400 years to treat the backlog of patients. [18] To prevent any new cases of obstetric fistulae, about 75,000 new emergency obstetric care facilities would have to be built in Africa alone, [59] plus an increase in financial support and an even higher number of certified doctors, midwives, and nurses needed.

Another challenge standing between women and fistula treatment is information. Most women have no idea that treatment is available. Because this is a condition of shame and embarrassment, most women hide themselves and their condition and suffer in silence. In addition, after receiving initial treatment, health education is important to prevent fistulae in subsequent pregnancies. [16]

Another challenge is the lack of trained professionals to provide surgery for fistula patients. As a result, nonphysicians are sometimes trained to provide obstetric services. For example, the Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital has medical staff without formal degrees, and one of its top surgeons was illiterate, but she had been trained over years and now regularly successfully performs fistula surgery. [45]

Catheterization

Fistula cases can also be treated through urethral catheterization if identified early enough. The Foley catheter is recommended because it has a balloon to hold it in place. The indwelling Foley catheter drains urine from the bladder. This decompresses the bladder wall so that the wounded edges come together and stay together, giving it a greater chance of closing naturally, at least in the smaller fistulae.[ citation needed ]

About 37% of obstetric fistulae that are treated within 75 days after birth with a Foley catheter resolve. Even without preselecting the least complicated obstetric fistula cases, a Foley catheter by midwives after the onset of urinary incontinence could treat over 25% of all new fistulae. [59]

Epidemiology

Obstetric fistulae are common in the developing world, especially in sub-Saharan Africa (Kenya, [60] Mali, Niger, [46] Nigeria, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Benin, Chad, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Uganda, and Zambia) and much of South Asia (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Nepal). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), an estimated 50,000 to 100,000 women develop obstetric fistulae each year and over two million women currently live with an obstetric fistula. [61] In particular, most of the two million-plus women in developing nations who develop obstetric fistulae are under the age of 30. [46] Between 50 and 80% of women under the age of 20 in poor countries develop obstetric fistulae (the youngest patients are 12–13 years old). [44] Other estimates indicate about 73,000 new cases occur per year. [62]

Obstetric fistulae were very common throughout the world, but since the late 19th century, the rise of gynecology developed safe practices for childbirth, including giving birth at local hospitals rather than at home, which dramatically reduced rates of obstructed labor and obstetric fistulae in Europe and North America. [46] [63]

Adequate population-based epidemiological data on obstetric fistulae are lacking due to the historic neglect of this condition since it was mostly eradicated in developed nations. Available data are estimations that should be viewed with caution. [16] About 30% of women over age 45 in developed nations are affected by urinary incontinence. [46] The rate of obstetrical fistulae is much lower in places that discourage early marriage, encourage and provide general education for women, and grant women access to family planning and skilled medical teams to assist during childbirth. [57]

History

Evidence of obstetric fistula dates back to 2050 BCE, when Queen Henhenit had a fistula.

The first acknowledgments of obstetric fistula date back to various Egyptian documents known as the papyri. These documents, including rare medical engravings, were found of the entrance of a tomb located in the necropolis of Saqquarah, Egypt. The tomb belonged to an unknown physician who lived during the 6th dynasty. The translation of this document became possible with the discovery of the Rosetta stone in 1799. [64]

In 1872, the Ebers papyrus was discovered in a mummy from the Theban acropolis. This papyrus, 65 feet long, 14 inches wide, consisting of 108 columns each about 20 lines, now resides in the library at the University of Leipzig. The gynecological reference in this papyrus addresses uterine prolapse, but at the end of page three, there seems to be a mention of the vesicovaginal fistula, warning the physician against trying to cure it, saying, "prescription for a woman whose urine is in an irksome place: if the urine keeps coming and she distinguishes it, she will be like this forever." [64] This seems to be the oldest reference to vesicovaginal fistula, one which articulates the storied history of the problem.

James Marion Sims, in 1852 in Alabama, developed an operation for fistula. He worked at the New York Women's Hospital. [64]

Society and culture

During most of the 20th century, obstetric fistulae were largely missing from the international global health agenda. This is reflected by the fact that the condition was not included as a topic at the landmark United Nations 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD). [65] The 194-page report from the ICPD does not include any reference to obstetric fistulae. In 2000, eight Millennium Development Goals were adopted after the United Nations Millennium Summit to be achieved by 2015. The fifth goal of improving maternal health is directly related to obstetric fistula. Since 2003, obstetric fistula has been gaining awareness amongst the general public and has received critical attention from UNFPA, who has organized a global "Campaign to End Fistula". [66] New York Times columnist Nicholas Kristof, a Pulitzer Prize–winning writer, wrote several columns in 2003, 2005, and 2006 [67] focusing on fistula and particularly treatment provided by Catherine Hamlin at the Fistula Hospital in Ethiopia. In 2007, Fistula Foundation, Engel Entertainment, and a number of other organizations including PBS NOVA released the documentary film, A Walk to Beautiful , which traced the journey of five women from Ethiopia who sought treatment for their obstetric fistulae at the Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital in Ethiopia. The film still airs frequently on PBS in the U.S. and is credited with increasing awareness of obstetric fistulae greatly. Increased public awareness and corresponding political pressure have helped fund the UNFPA's Campaign to End Fistula, and helped motivate the United States Agency for International Development to dramatically increase funding for the prevention and treatment of obstetric fistulae.[ citation needed ]

Countries that signed the United Nations Millennium Declaration have begun adopting policies and creating task forces to address issues of maternal morbidity and infant mortality, including Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Uganda, Eritrea, Niger, and Kenya. Laws to increase the minimum age for marriage have also been enacted in Bangladesh, Nigeria, and Kenya. To monitor these countries and hold them accountable, the UN has developed six "process indicators", a benchmark tool with minimum acceptable levels that measures whether or not women receive the services they need. [15]

The UNFPA set out several strategies to address fistulae, including "postponing marriage and pregnancy for young girls, increasing access to education and family planning services for women and men, provide access to adequate medical care for all pregnant women and emergency obstetric care for all who develop complications, and repairing physical damage through medical intervention and emotional damage through counselling." [68] One of the UNFPA's initiatives to reduce the cost of transportation in accessing medical care provided ambulances and motorcycles for women in Benin, Chad, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Rwanda, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia. [15]

Campaign to end fistula

The Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital in Ethiopia successfully treats women with obstetric fistulae, even in less than desirable environments. As a result, the UNFPA gathered partners in London in 2001, and officially launched an international initiative to address obstetric fistulae later in 2003. Partners in this initiative include Columbia University's Averting Maternal Death and Disability Program, the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics, and the World Health Organization. The official international partnership formed by the Campaign to End Fistula is named the Obstetric Fistula Working Group (OFWG) and its purpose is to coordinate and collaborate global efforts to eliminate obstetric fistulae. [16]

The initiative's first action was to quantitatively assess the issue in countries where the prevalence is suspected to be high, including nine countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The studies found that fistula patients are mostly illiterate, young, and poor women. Moreover, local legislators and government officials' lack of awareness exacerbate the problem. [57] [69] The OFWG improves awareness for prenatal and neonatal care and develops strategies for clinically managing obstetric fistula cases. [16]

To date, the Campaign to End Fistula has involved more than 30 countries in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and the Middle East, and completed rapid needs assessments in many of those countries to continually assess the needs in each country. The strategies that the campaign helps each nation to develop are three-fold: prevention of new cases, treatment for patients, and support for reintegration into society after the operation. Prevention efforts include access to maternal health services and mobilizing communities and legislators to increase awareness of maternal health problems. Training health providers and ensuring affordable treatment services, as well as providing social services such as health education and mental health services, help treat and reintegrate women into their communities. Other tasks undertaken by the campaign include fundraising and introducing new donors and gathering new partners of all perspectives, such as faith-based organizations, NGOs, and private-sector companies. [16]

Fistula Fortnight

The Fistula Fortnight was a two-week initiative that took place from February 21 to March 6, 2005, where fistula experts treated fistula patients for free at four surgical camps in the northern Nigerian states of Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, and Sokoto. The initiative was collaborated by many partners such as the federal and state governments of Nigeria, 13 Nigerian fistula surgeons, the Nigerian Red Cross, and UNFPA. During the nine-month preparation period, facilities were renovated, equipment were provided, and staff were extensively trained to treat fistula. [16] The goals of this initiative were to alleviate the backlog of patients waiting for surgery, provide treatment services at host sites, and to raise awareness for maternal health.

The Fistula Fortnight treated 569 women at no cost, with an 87.8% rate of successful closures. Follow-up treatments and services were provided, such as bed rest, analgesics, oral fluids, visual monitoring of urination by nurses, a catheter, catheter removal, and an examination and discharge from the hospital at a minimum of four weeks, with instruction to avoid sexual intercourse. The Fistula Fortnight also had preoperative and postoperative counseling provided by nurses and social workers and held health education workshops for fistula patients and their families. [70]

Community organizations

People recovering from a fistula in the postoperative period need support to fully reintegrate into society. [71] In particular, physical labor is limited in the first year of recovery, so women need alternative ways to earn an income. [31] Since poverty is an indirect cause of obstetric fistulae, some community organizations aim to provide postoperative services to enhance the women's socioeconomic situation. Delta Survie, located in Mopti, Mali, is a community center that provides skills training and helps women to produce hand-made jewelry to generate income and meet other women while they recover. [72] Another organization, IAMANEH Suisse, identifies Malian fistula patients, facilitates operations for those without the financial means, and helps them access follow-up services to prevent recurrence of fistulae in their subsequent pregnancies. [73]

Other organizations also help to arrange mission trips for medical personnel to visit countries with women affected by fistulae, perform surgeries, and train local doctors to give medical assistance for fistula patients. The International Organization for Women and Development (IOWD) is one such nonprofit organization. The IOWD hosts four to five mission trips per year to provide relief to obstetric fistula patients in West Africa. IOWD mission trip members have evaluated thousands of patients at no cost and performed surgeries for over a thousand women. [46]

Treatment centers

A complete fistula treatment center includes investigative services like laboratory work, radiology, and a blood bank, to ensure that the medical history of patients is clearly understood before treatment options are evaluated. [33] The surgical services would include operating theaters, postoperative wards, and anesthetic services. Physiotherapy and social-reintegration services are also necessary to arm women affected by obstetric fistula with the tools necessary to re-enter a society from which they have been ostracised. The size of the facility should be tailored to the need in the area, and the most successful centers work in collaboration with other treatment centers and organizations, forming a larger network of resources. [16] The cost of salaries, single-use medical equipment, up to date technology and equipment, and maintenance of infrastructure, collectively provide large economic burdens to treatment centers. [33] A barrier also arises when governments and local authorities require that approval be obtained prior to the construction of centers. There is an uneven distribution of specialized health care providers due to the below optimal training and supervision of health works and the low wages of fistula surgeons. [33] Most fistula surgeons come from developed countries and are brought to developing countries, the nations more often affected by fistula, by a variety of organizations. An example of a well functioning treatment center is in Bangladesh where a facility has been created in association with the Dhaka Medical College Hospital with support from the United Nations Population Fund. [16] Here, 46 doctors and 30 nurses have been trained and have successfully doubled the number of fistula cases addressed and operated on. Another example is a fistula unit in N'djamena, Chad, which has a mobile clinic that travels to rural, hard-to-reach areas, to provide services, and works in association with Liberty Hospital. [74] The World Health Organization has created a manual articulating necessary principles for surgical and pre- and post- operative care regarding obstetric fistula, providing a beneficial outline for affected nations. [75] Treatment centers are crucial for the survival of obstetric fistula patients and well-equipped centers help the emotional, physical, and psychological aspects of their lives.

See also

Related Research Articles

Obstetrics and gynaecology is the medical specialty that encompasses the two subspecialties of obstetrics and gynaecology. The specialization is an important part of care for women's health.

Obstetrics is the field of study concentrated on pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period. As a medical specialty, obstetrics is combined with gynecology under the discipline known as obstetrics and gynecology (OB/GYN), which is a surgical field.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fistula</span> Abnormal connection between two epithelialized surfaces, often organs

In anatomy, a fistula is an abnormal connection joining two hollow spaces, such as blood vessels, intestines, or other hollow organs to each other, often resulting in an abnormal flow of fluid from one space to the other. An anal fistula connects the anal canal to the perianal skin. An anovaginal or rectovaginal fistula is a hole joining the anus or rectum to the vagina. A colovaginal fistula joins the space in the colon to that in the vagina. A urinary tract fistula is an abnormal opening in the urinary tract or an abnormal connection between the urinary tract and another organ. An abnormal communication between the bladder and the uterus is called a vesicouterine fistula, while if it is between the bladder and the vagina it is known as a vesicovaginal fistula, and if between the urethra and the vagina: a urethrovaginal fistula. When occurring between two parts of the intestine, it is known as an enteroenteral fistula, between the small intestine and the skin as an enterocutaneous fistula, and between the colon and the skin as a colocutaneous fistula.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maternal death</span> Aspect of human reproduction and medicine

Maternal death or maternal mortality is defined in slightly different ways by several different health organizations. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines maternal death as the death of a pregnant mother due to complications related to pregnancy, underlying conditions worsened by the pregnancy or management of these conditions. This can occur either while they are pregnant or within six weeks of resolution of the pregnancy. The CDC definition of pregnancy-related deaths extends the period of consideration to include one year from the resolution of the pregnancy. Pregnancy associated death, as defined by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG), are all deaths occurring within one year of a pregnancy resolution. Identification of pregnancy associated deaths is important for deciding whether or not the pregnancy was a direct or indirect contributing cause of the death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rectovaginal fistula</span> Medical condition

A rectovaginal fistula is a medical condition where there is a fistula or abnormal connection between the rectum and the vagina.

A hysterotomy is an incision made in the uterus. This surgical incision is used in several medical procedures, including during termination of pregnancy in the second trimester and delivering the fetus during caesarean section. It is also used to gain access and perform surgery on a fetus during pregnancy to correct birth defects, and it is an option to achieve resuscitation if cardiac arrest occurs during pregnancy and it is necessary to remove the fetus from the uterus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Obstructed labour</span> Medical condition

Obstructed labour, also known as labour dystocia, is the baby not exiting the pelvis because it is physically blocked during childbirth although the uterus contracts normally. Complications for the baby include not getting enough oxygen which may result in death. It increases the risk of the mother getting an infection, having uterine rupture, or having post-partum bleeding. Long-term complications for the mother include obstetrical fistula. Obstructed labour is said to result in prolonged labour, when the active phase of labour is longer than 12 hours.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vesicovaginal fistula</span> Female urogenital fissure

Vesicovaginal fistula (VVF) is a subtype of female urogenital fistula (UGF).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Traditional birth attendant</span> Person who provides maternity care informally

A traditional birth attendant (TBA), also known as a traditional midwife, community midwife or lay midwife, is a pregnancy and childbirth care provider. Traditional birth attendants provide the majority of primary maternity care in many developing countries, and may function within specific communities in developed countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maternal–fetal medicine</span> Branch of medicine

Maternal–fetal medicine (MFM), also known as perinatology, is a branch of medicine that focuses on managing health concerns of the mother and fetus prior to, during, and shortly after pregnancy.

Kelsey Atangamuerimo Harrison is an emeritus professor of obstetrics and gynaecology and former vice-chancellor of University of Port Harcourt, who contributed immensely to studies of maternal health, especially during pregnancy. As a researcher at the University of Ibadan, he mapped out the effects of severe anaemia on the mother and her baby, and established the safety of treating gross anaemia by packed cell transfusion combined with rapidly acting diuretic. He was also part of a group that discovered the dangerous threat posed by sickle cell disease to maternal and fetal lives among Africans. In Zaria, the results of the work of a team he led, became the most powerful boost to international advocacy for better maternal and perinatal health in developing countries. Now retired, his life is summed up thus - an obstetrician and gynaecologist, a teacher and trainer, medical academic, university administrator, a sort of social activist, and a cricket and music fan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Non-pneumatic anti-shock garment</span> Device used to treat hypovolemic shock

The non-pneumatic anti-shock garment (NASG) is a low-technology first-aid device used to treat hypovolemic shock. Its efficacy for reducing maternal deaths due to obstetrical hemorrhage is being researched. Obstetrical hemorrhage is heavy bleeding of a woman during or shortly after a pregnancy. Current estimates suggest over 300,000 women die from obstetrical hemorrhage every year with 99% of cases occurring in developing countries; many of these deaths are preventable. Many women in resource-poor settings deliver far from health-care facilities. Once hemorrhage has been identified, many women die before reaching or receiving adequate treatment. The NASG can be used to keep women alive until they can get the treatment they need.

Urogynecology or urogynaecology is a surgical sub-specialty of urology and gynecology.

A postpartum disorder or puerperal disorder is a disease or condition which presents primarily during the days and weeks after childbirth called the postpartum period. The postpartum period can be divided into three distinct stages: the initial or acute phase, 6–12 hours after childbirth; subacute postpartum period, which lasts two to six weeks, and the delayed postpartum period, which can last up to six months. In the subacute postpartum period, 87% to 94% of women report at least one health problem. Long term health problems are reported by 31% of women.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to obstetrics:

The Bakri Balloon is a medical device invented and designed by Dr. Younes Bakri in 1999.

Abuse during childbirth is generally defined as interactions or conditions deemed humiliating or undignified by local consensus and interactions or conditions experienced as or intended to be humiliating or undignifying. Bowser and Hill's 2010 landscape analysis defined seven categories of abusive or disrespectful care, including physical abuse, non-consented clinical care, non-confidential care, non-dignified care, discrimination, abandonment, and detention in health facilities.

A urogenital fistula is an abnormal tract that exists between the urinary tract and bladder, ureters, or urethra. A urogenital fistula can occur between any of the organs and structures of the pelvic region. A fistula allows urine to continually exit through and out the urogenital tract. This can result in significant disability, interference with sexual activity, and other physical health issues, the effects of which may in turn have a negative impact on mental or emotional state, including an increase in social isolation. Urogenital fistulas vary in etiology. Fistulas are usually caused by injury or surgery, but they can also result from malignancy, infection, prolonged and obstructed labor and deliver in childbirth, hysterectomy, radiation therapy or inflammation. Of the fistulas that develop from difficult childbirth, 97 percent occur in developing countries. Congenital urogenital fistulas are rare; only ten cases have been documented. Abnormal passageways can also exist between the vagina and the organs of the gastrointestinal system, and these may also be termed fistulas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maura Lynch</span> Irish Doctor and Catholic Nun

Sr. Dr. Maura Lynch was an Irish doctor, a nun, and proponent of women's health.

Sayeba Akhter is a Bangladeshi physician who has dedicated her career to eliminating obstetric fistula. She is an executive member of the International Society of Obstetric Fistula Surgeons and has previously served as the president of the Obstetrics and Gynaecology Society of Bangladesh. She leads two charities, in Dhaka and Gaibandha, which focus on the education of underprivileged girls.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 "Obstetric fistula". UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund. 8 May 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  2. 1 2 3 "10 facts on obstetric fistula". WHO. May 2014. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Creanga AA, Genadry RR (November 2007). "Obstetric fistulas: a clinical review". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 99 (Suppl 1): S40-6. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2007.06.021. PMID   17868675. S2CID   23859968.
  4. ↑ Setchell ME, Hudson CN (2013). Shaw's Textbook of Operative Gynaecology - E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 370. ISBN   978-8131234815.
  5. ↑ Disch L, Hawkesworth M (2015). The Oxford Handbook of Feminist Theory. Oxford University Press. p. 821. ISBN   9780199328598.
  6. 1 2 "Women's Health." Vaginal Fistula Causes, Symptoms, & Treatments. WebMD, n.d. Web. 22 Oct. 2012. <http://women.webmd.com/tc/vaginal-fistula-topic-overview>
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Obstetric Fistula." Our Bodies Ourselves Health Resource Center. Our Bodies Ourselves Health Resource Center, n.d. Web. 22 Oct. 2012. <http://www.ourbodiesourselves.org/book/companion.asp?id=22%5B%5D>
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 "Rectovaginal Fistula." Mayo Clinic. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 29 May 2010. Web. 22 Oct. 2012. <http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/rectovaginal-fistula/DS01065/DSECTION=symptoms>
  9. ↑ Champagne BJ, McGee MF (February 2010). "Rectovaginal fistula". The Surgical Clinics of North America. 90 (1): 69–82, Table of Contents. doi:10.1016/j.suc.2009.09.003. PMID   20109633.
  10. 1 2 Novi JM, Northington GM (2005). "Rectovaginal Fistula". Journal of Pelvic Medicine and Surgery. 11 (6): 283–293. doi:10.1097/01.spv.0000190848.17284.d3.
  11. 1 2 Wong M, Ozel B (2010). "Fistulae". Management of Common Problems in Obstetrics and Gynecology (5th ed.). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 328–332.
  12. 1 2 Semere L, Nour NM (2008). "Obstetric fistula: living with incontinence and shame". Reviews in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 1 (4): 193–7. PMC   2621054 . PMID   19173024.
  13. 1 2 Ahmed S, Holtz SA (November 2007). "Social and economic consequences of obstetric fistula: life changed forever?". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 99 (Suppl 1): S10-5. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2007.06.011. PMID   17727854. S2CID   33873193.
  14. ↑ Wall LL (September 2006). "Obstetric vesicovaginal fistula as an international public-health problem". Lancet. 368 (9542): 1201–9. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(06)69476-2. PMID   17011947. S2CID   40917162.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Capes T, Ascher-Walsh C, Abdoulaye I, Brodman M (2011). "Obstetric fistula in low and middle income countries". The Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, New York. 78 (3): 352–61. doi:10.1002/msj.20265. PMID   21598262.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Donnay F, Ramsey K (September 2006). "Eliminating obstetric fistula: progress in partnerships". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 94 (3): 254–61. doi: 10.1016/j.ijgo.2006.04.005 . PMID   16879827. S2CID   305734.
  17. ↑ Arrowsmith S, Hamlin EC, Wall LL (September 1996). "Obstructed labor injury complex: obstetric fistula formation and the multifaceted morbidity of maternal birth trauma in the developing world". Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 51 (9): 568–74. doi:10.1097/00006254-199609000-00024. PMID   8873157.
  18. 1 2 3 Ijaiya MA, Aboyeji PA (2004). "Obstetric urogenital fistula: the Ilorin experience, Nigeria". West African Journal of Medicine. 23 (1): 7–9. doi: 10.4314/wajm.v23i1.28071 . PMID   15171516.
  19. ↑ http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/resource-pdf/Fistula%20brochure-May14_0.pdf [ bare URL PDF ]
  20. ↑ "Fast Facts & FAQ's". The Fistula Foundation. Archived from the original on June 22, 2013. Retrieved April 10, 2012.
  21. ↑ Kristoff ND (2010). Half the Sky. New York: First Vintage Books.
  22. ↑ Burkina Faso Ministry of Health and UNFPA. Sociocultural study on obstetric fistula. Ouagadougou.
  23. ↑ Lita A (8 March 2008). "Obstetric Fistula: A Dire Consequence of Child Marriage". International Humanist and Ethical Union. Archived from the original on 6 January 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
  24. 1 2 Roush KM (2009). "Social implications of obstetric fistula: an integrative review". Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health. 54 (2): e21-33. doi:10.1016/j.jmwh.2008.09.005. PMID   19249652.
  25. ↑ Hilton P, Ward A (1998). "Epidemiological and surgical aspects of urogenital fistulae: a review of 25 years' experience in southeast Nigeria". International Urogynecology Journal and Pelvic Floor Dysfunction. 9 (4): 189–94. doi:10.1007/bf01901602. PMID   9795822. S2CID   22274707.
  26. ↑ Kelly J, Kwast BE (1993). "Epidemiologic study of vesicovaginal fistulas in ethiopia". International Urogynecology Journal. 4 (5): 278–281. doi:10.1007/BF00372737. S2CID   37634887.
  27. 1 2 Tahzib F (May 1983). "Epidemiological determinants of vesicovaginal fistulas". British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 90 (5): 387–91. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.1983.tb08933.x. PMID   6849845. S2CID   20241949.
  28. ↑ Ijaiya MA, Rahman AG, Aboyeji AP, Olatinwo AW, Esuga SA, Ogah OK, et al. (2010). "Vesicovaginal fistula: a review of nigerian experience". West African Journal of Medicine. 29 (5): 293–8. doi: 10.4314/wajm.v29i5.68247 . PMID   21089013.
  29. 1 2 McKinney, T. B. (2006). Fistula women of Africa: The horror of their lives, and hope for their tomorrow Archived 2019-01-30 at the Wayback Machine . The International Organization for Women and Development. Lecture presented October 2006, Phoenix, AZ.
  30. ↑ Charlotte Warren; Annie Mwangi (December 2008). "Obstetric Fistula: Can Community Midwives Make a Difference?". UNFPA.
  31. 1 2 Pope R, Bangser M, Requejo JH (2011). "Restoring dignity: social reintegration after obstetric fistula repair in Ukerewe, Tanzania". Global Public Health. 6 (8): 859–73. doi:10.1080/17441692.2010.551519. PMID   21390964. S2CID   36101563.
  32. 1 2 Yeakey MP, Chipeta E, Taulo F, Tsui AO (June 2009). "The lived experience of Malawian women with obstetric fistula". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 11 (5): 499–513. doi:10.1080/13691050902874777. JSTOR   27784472. PMID   19444686. S2CID   20498040.
  33. 1 2 3 4 5 Polan ML, Sleemi A, Bedane MM, Lozo S, Morgan MA (2015). Debas HT, Donkor P, Gawande A, Jamison DT, Kruk ME, Mock CN (eds.). Essential Surgery: Disease Control Priorities, Third Edition (Volume 1). Washington (DC): The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-0346-8_ch6. ISBN   9781464803468. PMID   26740998.
  34. ↑ Dolea C, AbouZahr C (July 2003). "Global burden of obstructed labour in the year 2000" (PDF). Evidence and Information for Policy (EIP), World Health Organization.
  35. ↑ Hilton P (September 2003). "Vesico-vaginal fistulas in developing countries". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 82 (3): 285–95. doi:10.1016/S0020-7292(03)00222-4. PMID   14499975. S2CID   38182229.
  36. ↑ Keeton C (2004). "Sexual abuse on the rise in Africa—governments must act" (PDF). Bull World Health Organ. 82: 313.
  37. 1 2 The ACQUIRE Project. Traumatic gynecologic fistula as a consequence of sexual violence in conflict settings: a literature review. New York7 The ACQUIRE Project/EngenderHealth; 2005.
  38. ↑ "Rectovaginal Fistula and Rectourethral Fistula | ASCRS". Archived from the original on 2015-04-11. Retrieved 2015-04-06.
  39. 1 2 Miller S, Lester F, Webster M, Cowan B (2005). "Obstetric fistula: a preventable tragedy". Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health. 50 (4): 286–94. doi:10.1016/j.jmwh.2005.03.009. PMID   15973264.
  40. ↑ Hofmeyr GJ (June 2004). "Obstructed labor: using better technologies to reduce mortality". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 85 (Suppl 1): S62-72. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2004.01.011. PMID   15147855. S2CID   6981815.
  41. 1 2 3 John Middleton; Joseph C. Miller (2008). "Childbearing". New Encyclopedia of Africa. 1: 363–370. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
  42. ↑ Chandiramani, Payal. "Programmatic and Policy Recommendations for Addressing Obstetric Fistula and Uterine Prolapse | Wilson Center." Wilson Center. The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 27 Sept. 2012. Web. 27 Nov. 2012. <http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/programmatic-and-policy-recommendations-for-addressing-obstetric-fistula-and-uterine-prolapse>
  43. ↑ http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/resource-pdf/EN-SRH%20fact%20sheet-Fistula.pdf [ bare URL PDF ]
  44. 1 2 3 4 Cook RJ, Dickens BM, Syed S (October 2004). "Obstetric fistula: the challenge to human rights". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 87 (1): 72–7. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2004.07.005. PMID   15464787. S2CID   42899619.
  45. 1 2 3 4 Kristof, Nicholas D., and Sheryl WuDunn. Half the Sky: Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009. Print.
  46. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Narcisi L, Tieniber A, Andriani L, McKinney T (2010). "The fistula crisis in sub-Saharan Africa: an ongoing struggle in education and awareness". Urologic Nursing. 30 (6): 341–6. doi:10.7257/1053-816x.2010.30.6.341. PMID   21261194. S2CID   26532718.
  47. ↑ Kenya Ministry of Health and UNFPA. Needs assessment of obstetric fistula in selected districts of Kenya; 2004.
  48. ↑ "A Tragic Failure to Deliver Maternal Care". UNFPA. Archived from the original on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
  49. ↑ United Nations Population Fund, Campaign to End Fistula. The Maternal Health Thematic Fund Annual Report 2010: Campaign to End Fistula. http://www.endfistula.org/publications.htm Archived 2010-12-07 at the Wayback Machine . Accessed November 2012.
  50. ↑ Wegner MN, Ruminjo J, Sinclair E, Pesso L, Mehta M (November 2007). "Improving community knowledge of obstetric fistula prevention and treatment". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 99 (Suppl 1): S108-11. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2007.06.030. PMID   17869255. S2CID   22367850.
  51. ↑ Hamlin EC, Muleta M, Kennedy RC (March 2002). "Providing an obstetric fistula service". BJU International. 89 (Suppl 1): 50–3. doi:10.1046/j.1465-5101.2001.129.x. PMID   11876733. S2CID   10546749.
  52. ↑ Wall LL, Arrowsmith SD, Briggs ND, Browning A, Lassey A (July 2005). "The obstetric vesicovaginal fistula in the developing world". Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 60 (7 Suppl 1): S3–S51. doi:10.1097/00006254-200507001-00002. PMID   16034313. S2CID   27456733.
  53. ↑ "Removing Obstacles to Increased Treatment". The Fistula Foundation. Archived from the original on 3 June 2012. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
  54. ↑ Nathan LM, Rochat CH, Grigorescu B, Banks E (May 2009). "Obstetric fistulae in West Africa: patient perspectives". American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 200 (5): e40-2. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2008.10.014 . PMID   19111717.
  55. ↑ Galandiuk S, Kimberling J, Al-Mishlab TG, Stromberg AJ (May 2005). "Perianal Crohn disease: predictors of need for permanent diversion". Annals of Surgery. 241 (5): 796–801, discussion 801–2. doi:10.1097/01.sla.0000161030.25860.c1. PMC   1357134 . PMID   15849515.
  56. ↑ Johnson KA, Turan JM, Hailemariam L, Mengsteab E, Jena D, Polan ML (August 2010). "The role of counseling for obstetric fistula patients: lessons learned from Eritrea". Patient Education and Counseling. 80 (2): 262–5. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2009.11.010. PMC   3552555 . PMID   20034756.
  57. 1 2 3 United Nations Population Fund (UNPFA) & EngenderHealth (2003). Obstetric fistula needs assessment report: Findings from nine African countries. Retrieved from www.unfpa.org/fistula/docs/fistula-needsassessment.pdf
  58. ↑ UNFPA (2002) The second meeting of the working group for the prevention and treatment of obstetric fistula, Addis Ababa, 30 October–1 November 2002. Available: http://www.unfpa.org/upload/lib_pub_file/146_filename_fistula_kgroup02.pdf Archived 2009-05-30 at the Wayback Machine . Accessed 9 August 2004.
  59. 1 2 Waaldjik K (1998) Evaluation report XIV on VVF projects in northern Nigeria and Niger. Katsina (Nigeria): Babbar Ruga Fistula Hospital. 27 p.
  60. ↑ "Sadar, Pina, Waweru, Wambui: Alive Again (2010)". Deutsche Welle Akademie. Retrieved 23 August 2012.
  61. ↑ Obstetric Fistulae: A Review of Available Information, 1991; WHO/MCH/MSM/91.5
  62. ↑ AbouZahr C (2003). "Global burden of maternal death and disability". British Medical Bulletin. 67: 1–11. doi: 10.1093/bmb/ldg015 . PMID   14711750.
  63. ↑ "Fast Facts & FAQs". Fistula Foundation. Archived from the original on 22 June 2013. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
  64. 1 2 3 Zacharin RF (2012-12-06). Obstetric Fistula. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN   9783709189214.
  65. ↑ "Report of the ICPD (94/10/18)" . Retrieved 17 April 2012.
  66. ↑ "Obstetric Fistula". UNFPA. Archived from the original on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
  67. ↑ Kristof N (16 May 2003). "Alone and Ashamed". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
  68. ↑ UNFPA Campaign to End Fistula: "Fast Facts" (www.unfpa.org/fi stula/facts.htm).
  69. ↑ UNFPA. The second meeting of the Working Group for the Prevention and Treatment of obstetric fistula. New York: UNFPA; 2003.
  70. ↑ Ramsey K, Iliyasu Z, Idoko L (November 2007). "Fistula Fortnight: innovative partnership brings mass treatment and public awareness towards ending obstetric fistula". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 99 (Suppl 1): S130-6. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2007.06.034. PMID   17870079. S2CID   7066522.
  71. ↑ Ahmed S, Holtz SA (November 2007). "Social and economic consequences of obstetric fistula: life changed forever?". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 99 Suppl 1 (S1): S10-5. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2007.06.011. PMID   17727854. S2CID   33873193.
  72. ↑ Sankare I. Contribution to the development of a mechanism for autonomous social for women with fistula in the region of Mopti. Proceedings of the meeting making motherhood safer by addressing obstetric fistula. Johannesburg, South Africa, 23—26 October; 2005.
  73. ↑ Kadiatou K. Prevention of obstetric fistula and support to women identified in Se´gou, Mali. proceedings of the meeting making motherhood safer by addressing obstetric fistula. Johannesburg, South Africa, 23—26 October; 2005.
  74. ↑ Donnay F, Ramsey K (September 2006). "Eliminating obstetric fistula: progress in partnerships". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 94 (3): 254–61. doi: 10.1016/j.ijgo.2006.04.005 . PMID   16879827. S2CID   305734.
  75. ↑ Charlotte B. "Obstetric Fistula Needs Assessment Report: Findings from Nine African Countries" (PDF). Engender Health: Improving Women's Health Worldwide. Retrieved May 15, 2018.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.