Related Research Articles
Menstruation is the regular discharge of blood and mucosal tissue from the inner lining of the uterus through the vagina. The menstrual cycle is characterized by the rise and fall of hormones. Menstruation is triggered by falling progesterone levels and is a sign that pregnancy has not occurred.
Polycystic ovary syndrome, or polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), is the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age. The syndrome is named after cysts which form on the ovaries of some people with this condition, though this is not a universal symptom, and not the underlying cause of the disorder.
Ovulation is the release of eggs from the ovaries. In women, this event occurs when the ovarian follicles rupture and release the secondary oocyte ovarian cells. After ovulation, during the luteal phase, the egg will be available to be fertilized by sperm. In addition, the uterine lining (endometrium) is thickened to be able to receive a fertilized egg. If no conception occurs, the uterine lining as well as the egg will be shed during menstruation.
Amenorrhea is the absence of a menstrual period in a female who has reached reproductive age. Physiological states of amenorrhoea are seen, most commonly, during pregnancy and lactation (breastfeeding). Outside the reproductive years, there is absence of menses during childhood and after menopause.
Anovulation is when the ovaries do not release an oocyte during a menstrual cycle. Therefore, ovulation does not take place. However, a woman who does not ovulate at each menstrual cycle is not necessarily going through menopause. Chronic anovulation is a common cause of infertility.
Hyperandrogenism is a medical condition characterized by high levels of androgens. It is more common in women than men. Symptoms of hyperandrogenism may include acne, seborrhea, hair loss on the scalp, increased body or facial hair, and infrequent or absent menstruation. Complications may include high blood cholesterol and diabetes. It occurs in approximately 5% of women of reproductive age.
An anovulatory cycle is a menstrual cycle characterised by the absence of ovulation and a luteal phase. It may also vary in duration from a regular menstrual cycle.
Vaginal bleeding is any expulsion of blood from the vagina. This bleeding may originate from the uterus, vaginal wall, or cervix. Generally, it is either part of a normal menstrual cycle or is caused by hormonal or other problems of the reproductive system, such as abnormal uterine bleeding.
The hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis refers to the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and gonadal glands as if these individual endocrine glands were a single entity. Because these glands often act in concert, physiologists and endocrinologists find it convenient and descriptive to speak of them as a single system.
A menstrual disorder is characterized as any abnormal condition with regards to a woman's menstrual cycle. There are many different types of menstrual disorders that vary with signs and symptoms, including pain during menstruation, heavy bleeding, or absence of menstruation. Normal variations can occur in menstrual patterns but generally menstrual disorders can also include periods that come sooner than 21 days apart, more than 3 months apart, or last more than 10 days in duration. Variations of the menstrual cycle are mainly caused by the immaturity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) axis, and early detection and management is required in order to minimize the possibility of complications regarding future reproductive ability.
Polymenorrhea, also known as frequent periods, frequent menstruation, or frequent menstrual bleeding, is a menstrual disorder in which menstrual cycles are shorter than 21 days in length and hence where menstruation occurs more frequently than usual. Cycles are regular and menstrual flow is normal in the condition. Normally, menstrual cycles are 25 to 30 days in length, with a median duration of 28 days.
Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) is a syndrome in which disordered eating, amenorrhoea/oligomenorrhoea, and decreased bone mineral density are present. It is caused by eating too little food to support the amount of energy being expended by an athlete, often at the urging of a coach or other authority figure who believes that athletes are more likely to win competitions when they have an extremely lean body type. RED-S is a serious illness with lifelong health consequences and can potentially be fatal.
Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea (FHA) is a form of amenorrhea and chronic anovulation and is one of the most common types of secondary amenorrhea. It is classified as hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. It was previously known as "juvenile hypothalamosis syndrome," prior to the discovery that sexually mature females are equally affected. FHA has multiple risk factors, with links to stress-related, weight-related, and exercise-related factors. FHA is caused by stress-induced suppression of the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) axis, which results in inhibition of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion, and gonadotropins, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Severe and potentially prolonged hypoestrogenism is perhaps the most dangerous hormonal pathology associated with the disease, because consequences of this disturbance can influence bone health, cardiovascular health, mental health, and metabolic functioning in both the short and long-term. Because many of the symptoms overlap with those of organic hypothalamic, pituitary, or gonadal disease and therefore must be ruled out, FHA is a diagnosis of exclusion; "functional" is used to indicate a behavioral cause, in which no anatomical or organic disease is identified, and is reversible with correction of the underlying cause. Diagnostic workup includes a detailed history and physical, laboratory studies, such as a pregnancy test, and serum levels of FSH and LH, prolactin, and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and imaging. Additional tests may be indicated in order to distinguish FHA from organic hypothalamic or pituitary disorders. Patients present with a broad range of symptoms related to severe hypoestrogenism as well as hypercortisolemia, low serum insulin levels, low serum insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), and low total triiodothyronine (T3). Treatment is primarily managing the primary cause of the FHA with behavioral modifications. While hormonal-based therapies are potential treatment to restore menses, weight gain and behavioral modifications can have an even more potent impact on reversing neuroendocrine abnormalities, preventing further bone loss, and re-establishing menses, making this the recommended line of treatment. If this fails to work, secondary treatment is aimed at treating the effects of hypoestrogenism, hypercortisolism, and hypothyroidism.
Hypomenorrhea or hypomenorrhoea, also known as short or scanty periods, is extremely light menstrual blood flow. It is the opposite of heavy periods or hypermenorrhea which is more properly called menorrhagia.
Ovarian diseases refer to diseases or disorders of the ovary.
Irregular menstruation is a menstrual disorder whose manifestations include irregular cycle lengths as well as metrorrhagia. The possible causes of irregular menstruation may vary. The common factors of it are related to lifestyle, such as stress, body weight, and smoking status. Several studies indicate that COVID-19 vaccine of any type may disrupt the menstrual cycle, although only momentarily. This side effect should resolve on its own in the following month.
Obesity is defined as an abnormal accumulation of body fat, usually 20% or more over an individual's ideal body weight. This is often described as a body mass index (BMI) over 30. However, BMI does not account for whether the excess weight is fat or muscle, and is not a measure of body composition. For most people, however, BMI is an indication used worldwide to estimate nutritional status. Obesity is usually the result of consuming more calories than the body needs and not expending that energy by doing exercise. There are genetic causes and hormonal disorders that cause people to gain significant amounts of weight but this is rare. People in the obese category are much more likely to suffer from fertility problems than people of normal healthy weight.
The HAIR-AN syndrome is a rare subtype of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) characterized by hyperandrogenism (HA), insulin resistance (IR) and acanthosis nigricans (AN). The symptoms of the HAIR-AN syndrome are largely due to severe insulin resistance, which can be secondary to blocking antibodies against the insulin receptor or genetically absent/reduced insulin receptor number/function. Insulin resistance leads to hyperinsulinemia which, in turn, leads to an excess production of androgen hormones by the ovaries. High levels of androgen hormones (hyperandrogenism) in females causes excessive hair growth, acne and irregular menstruation. Patients with both underlying mechanisms of insulin resistance may have more severe hyperandrogenism. Insulin resistance is also associated with diabetes, heart disease and excessive darkening of the skin
Menstrual suppression refers to the practice of using hormonal management to stop or reduce menstrual bleeding. In contrast to surgical options for this purpose, such as hysterectomy or endometrial ablation, hormonal methods to manipulate menstruation are reversible.
Oligoamenorrhea, also known as irregular infrequent periods or irregular infrequent menstrual bleeding, is a collective term to refer to both oligomenorrhea and amenorrhea. It is a menstrual disorder in which menstrual bleeding occurs on an infrequent and irregular basis. Menstrual intervals are 37 to 180 days in oligoamenorrhea. Nearly 90% of women with oligoamenorrhea have polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
References
- 1 2 3 Riaz, Yumna; Parekh, Utsav (2023). "Oligomenorrhea". StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. PMID 32809410.
- ↑ Dale E, Gerlach DH, Wilhite AL (1979). "Menstrual dysfunction in distance runners". Obstet Gynecol. 54 (1): 47–53. doi:10.1097/00006250-197907000-00013. PMID 313033.
- ↑ Wakat DK, Sweeney KA, Rogol AD (1982). "Reproductive system function in women cross-country runners". Med Sci Sports Exerc. 14 (4): 263–9. doi: 10.1249/00005768-198204000-00002 . PMID 7132642.
- ↑ Frisch RE, Gotz-Welbergen AV, McArthur JW, et al. (1981). "Delayed menarche and amenorrhea of college athletes in relation to age of onset of training". JAMA. 246 (14): 1559–1563. doi:10.1001/jama.246.14.1559. PMID 7277629.
- ↑ Warren MP (1980). "The effects of exercise on pubertal progression and reproductive function in girls". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 51 (5): 1150–1157. doi:10.1210/jcem-51-5-1150. PMID 6775000.
- ↑ Torsiveit, MK (2005). "Participation in leanness sports but not training volume is associated with menstrual dysfunction: a national survey of 1276 elite athletes and controls". British Journal of Sports Medicine. 39 (3): 141–147. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2003.011338. PMC 1725151 . PMID 15728691.