Menstrual pad

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Menstrual pads Sanitary towel.jpg
Menstrual pads
Different sized maxipads Always maxipads all sizes.jpg
Different sized maxipads
Different brands on a shelf Sanitary towels on a shelf 02.jpg
Different brands on a shelf

A menstrual pad [a] is an absorbent item worn in the underwear when menstruating, bleeding after giving birth, recovering from gynecologic surgery, experiencing a miscarriage or abortion, or in any other situation where it is necessary to absorb a flow of blood from the vagina. A menstrual pad is a type of menstrual hygiene product that is worn externally, unlike tampons and menstrual cups, which are worn inside the vagina. Pads are generally changed by being stripped off the pants and panties, taking out the old pad, sticking the new one on the inside of the panties and pulling them back on. Pads are recommended to be changed every 3–4 hours to avoid certain bacteria that can fester in blood; this time also may differ depending on the kind worn, flow, and the time it is worn. [1]

Contents

Menstrual pads are made from a range of materials, differing depending on style, country of origin, and brand. [2] The pads are not the same as incontinence pads, which generally have higher absorbency and are worn by those who have urinary incontinence problems. Although menstrual pads are not made for this use, some use them for this purpose.

Types

Disposable

Platinum maxipad Always Platinum 1.jpg
Platinum maxipad

Although producers are generally reluctant to reveal the exact composition of their products, the main materials of disposable menstrual pads are usually bleached rayon (cellulose made from wood pulp), cotton and plastics. In addition, fragrance and antibacterial agents can be included. The plastic parts are the backsheet and polymer powder as an additional powerful absorbent (superabsorbent polymers) that turns into a gel when moistened. [3] Procter & Gamble advertise a proprietary material called Infinicel as the core of their napkins. [4] In general, the layering is as follows: "an absorbent core material placed between a flexible liquid-pervious topsheet and a liquid-impervious plastic backsheet that has an adhesive on the outside for attaching the napkin to an undergarment". [5] As is the case with disposable tampons and diapers, recycling is difficult and rarely done due to cost reasons, although proof-of-principle solutions appear to exist.[ citation needed ] When not dumped in a landfill where the non-biodegradable parts may persist for thousands of years, conventional hygiene products can at best be "thermally recycled" (incinerated). [6]

There are several different types of disposable menstrual pads:

The shape, absorbency and lengths may vary depending on manufacturer, but usually range from the short slender panty liner to the larger and longer overnight. Long pads are offered for extra protection or for larger people whose undergarments might not be completely protected by regular length pads, and also for overnight use.

Other options are often offered in a manufacturer's line of pads, such as wings or tabs that wrap around the sides of underwear to add additional leak protection and help secure the pad in place. Deodorant is also added to some pads, which is designed to cover menstrual odor with a light fragrance. There are even panty liners specifically designed to be worn with a thong/G-string.

Reusable (cloth)

Reusable cloth menstrual pad with Kokopelli motif Clothpad.jpg
Reusable cloth menstrual pad with Kokopelli motif
Modern reusable cloth pads in differing sizes LittleGumnut Cloth Pads CSP.jpg
Modern reusable cloth pads in differing sizes

Some people use a washable or reusable cloth menstrual pad. These are made from a number of types of fabric—most often cotton flannel, bamboo, or hemp (which is highly absorbent and not as bulky as cotton). Most styles have wings that secure around the underpants, but some are just held in place (without wings) between the body and the underpants. Some (particularly the older styles) are available in belted styles. Cloth menstrual pads made a comeback around the 1970s, [7] with their popularity increasing in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Reasons people choose to switch to cloth menstrual pads include comfort, savings over time, environmental impact and health reasons.

Washable menstrual pads do not need to be disposed of after use and therefore offer a more economical alternative. Reusable menstrual pads can be found on a number of websites, or are made at home (instructions are available online). They have become a popular alternative because they are allergen- and perfume-free, and can be more comfortable for people who experience irritation from using disposable pads.

There are many styles of cloth menstrual pads available today, ranging from panty liners to overnight pads. Popular styles of cloth menstrual pads include all-in-one, or AIO pads, in which the absorbent layer is sewn inside the pad, "inserts on top" style pads, which have absorbent layers that can be secured on top of the pad as needed, envelope or pocket style pads, which have absorbent layers that can be inserted inside the pad as needed, and a foldable style, in which the pad folds around the absorbent layers. Cloth menstrual pads can also have a waterproof lining, which provides more leak protection but may also be less breathable than those with no lining.

Uses

Menstrual pads are worn to absorb menstrual discharge, thereby protecting clothing and furnishings. They are usually individually wrapped so they are easier and more discreet to carry in a purse or bag. This wrapper may be used to wrap the soiled pads before disposing of them in appropriate receptacles. Some people prefer to wrap the pads with toilet paper instead of (or as well as) using the wrapper, which, often being made of slick plastic with a small tape tab, may not adequately stick. Menstrual pads of any type should not be flushed down the toilet as they can cause blockages. In developed countries, public toilets almost always include a receptacle in which to place soiled pads. In first aid, they make excellent dressings for heavy bleeding due to their high absorbency if gauze is unavailable or inadequate.[ citation needed ]

Many people who experience urinary incontinence use menstrual pads to manage bladder leaks. However, since menstrual pads are designed to absorb menstrual flow, they are not as effective in absorbing urinary leaks; incontinence pads are designed for this purpose. [8]

If someone does not have menstrual pads on hand while menstruating, they might use toilet paper as a temporary substitution.

History

An advertisement poster for Hartmann's pads, dated circa 1900. "Accouchement" means childbirth, and "puerperal fever" is a postpartum infection. Pad poster.jpg
An advertisement poster for Hartmann's pads, dated circa 1900. "Accouchement" means childbirth, and "puerperal fever" is a postpartum infection.
Bag for pads Hygienebeutel p.jpg
Bag for pads

Through the ages societies have used different forms of menstrual protection. [9] [10] Menstrual pads have been mentioned as early as the 10th century, in the Suda , where Hypatia, who lived in the 4th century AD, was said to have thrown one of her used menstrual rags at an admirer in an attempt to discourage him. [11] [12] In ancient Egypt, women used softened papyrus, a grass-like plant, to absorb their menstrual blood. [13] Before commercially available menstrual hygiene products, most women used pieces of cloth to absorb their menstrual flow. [14] "On the rag" is a term that originally referred to menstrual rags, but its modern usage is as a menstrual euphemism. [15]

Until disposable menstrual pads were created, cloth or reusable pads were widely used to collect menstrual blood. People often used a variety of home-made menstrual pads which they crafted from various fabrics, or other absorbent materials, to collect menstrual blood. [9] [16] Even after disposable pads were commercially available, for several years they were too expensive for many families to afford. [17] When they could be afforded, people were allowed to place money in a box so that they would not have to speak to the clerk and take a box of Kotex pads from the counter themselves.[ clarification needed ] [18] It took several years for disposable menstrual pads to become commonplace. For easier use, inventor Carolyn R. Mobley patented the tab construction for a sanitary napkin. [19] Disposables are now used nearly exclusively in most of the industrialized world. [17]

Sanitary napkin belt advertisement 1920 Sanitary napkin belt advertisement 1920.jpg
Sanitary napkin belt advertisement 1920

The first of the disposable pads were generally in the form of a cotton wool or similar fibrous rectangle covered with an absorbent liner. The liner ends were extended front and back so as to fit through loops in a special girdle or belt worn beneath undergarments. This design was notorious for slipping either forward or back of the intended position.

Disposable menstrual pads grew from a Benjamin Franklin invention created to help stop wounded soldiers from bleeding, [20] [ dubious – discuss ] but appear to have been first commercially available from around 1880 [21] with Thomas and William Southall's pad. [22] [23] The first commercially available American disposable napkins were Lister's Towels created by Johnson & Johnson in 1888. [24] Disposable pads had their start with nurses using their wood pulp bandages to absorb their menstrual flow, creating a pad that was made from easily obtainable materials and inexpensive enough to throw away after use. [25] Kotex's first advertisement for products made with this wood pulp (cellucotton) appeared in January 1921. [18] Johnson & Johnson introduced Modess [26] Sanitary Napkins in 1926, [27] researched by Lillian Gilbreth. [28] Lilian Gilbreth's market research report published in 1927 gives valuable information about American's experiences of menstruation in 1920s. [29] The surveys she conducted on over 1000 people with periods reveal that "the most significant fact concerning the marketing angle of the sanitary napkin [...] is that it is availability that sells a napkin." [30] Several of the first disposable pad manufacturers were also manufacturers of bandages, which could give an indication of what these products were like.

In 1956, Mary Kenner obtained a patent for an adjustable sanitary belt with an inbuilt, moisture-proof napkin pocket. [31] [32] However, the company that first showed interest in her invention rejected it after they discovered that she was African American. [31]

Later an adhesive strip was placed on the bottom of sanitary pads for attachment to the crotch of the panties, and this became a favoured method. The belted sanitary napkin quickly disappeared during the early 1980s.

The ergonomic design and materials used to make pads also changed through the 1980s to today. With earlier materials not being as absorbent and effective, and early pads being up to two centimetres thick, leaks were a major problem. Some variations introduced were quilting of the lining, adding "wings" and reducing the thickness of the pad by utilising products such as sphagnum and polyacrylate superabsorbent gels derived from petroleum. The materials used to manufacture most pads are derived from the petroleum industry and forestry. The absorbent core, made from chlorine bleached wood pulp, could be reduced to make slimmer products with the addition of polyacrylate gels which sucks up the liquid quickly and holds it in a suspension under pressure. The remaining materials are mostly derived from the petroleum industry, the cover stock used is polypropylene non woven, with the leakproof barrier made from polyethylene film.

Society and culture

Pads, especially reusable ones, may be visible on full body scanners. [33]

Developing countries

In developing countries, makeshift pads are still used to collect menstrual blood as they are cheaper. [34] Rags, soil, and mud are also reportedly used for collecting menstrual flow by people who cannot afford the more expensive disposable pads or tampons. [35]

In order to meet the need for achieving an inexpensive solution to reduce unsanitary and unhygienic practices in countries like India, Arunachalam Muruganantham from rural Coimbatore in the southern state of Tamil Nadu, India, developed and patented a machine which could manufacture low-cost sanitary pads for less than a third of the former cost.[ citation needed ] The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation awarded Nairobi-based ZanaAfrica a grant of US$3 million. [36] [37] [38] ZanaAfrica explores creative approaches to menstrual health education for adolescent girls. [39] [40]

Health effects

In 2024 it was reported that a brand of menstrual pad was found to contain the toxic chemical PFOA. [41]

Notes

  1. ↑ Also known as a sanitary pad, sanitary towel, feminine pad, sanitary napkin, feminine napkin, or simply a pad.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tampon</span> Menstrual hygiene product to absorb menstrual flow by insertion into the vagina

A tampon is a menstrual product designed to absorb blood and vaginal secretions by insertion into the vagina during menstruation. Unlike a pad, it is placed internally, inside of the vaginal canal. Once inserted correctly, a tampon is held in place by the vagina and expands as it soaks up menstrual blood.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pantyliner</span> Absorbent material used for feminine hygiene

A pantyliner is an absorbent piece of material used for feminine hygiene. It is worn in the gusset of a woman's panties. Some uses include: absorbency for daily vaginal discharge, light menstrual flow, tampon and menstrual cup backup, spotting, post-intercourse discharge, and urinary incontinence. Panty liners can also help with girls who are having discharges and about to start their cycle. Pantyliners are related to sanitary napkins in their basic construction—but are usually much thinner and often narrower than pads. As a result, they absorb much less liquid than pads—making them suitable for light discharge and everyday cleanliness. They are generally unsuitable for menstruation with medium to heavy flow, which requires them to be changed more often.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kotex</span> Brand of menstrual hygiene products

Kotex is an American brand of menstrual hygiene products, which includes the Kotex maxi, thin and ultra-thin pads, the Security tampons, and the Lightdays pantiliners. Most recently, the company has added U by Kotex to its menstrual hygiene product line. Kotex is owned and managed by Kimberly-Clark, a consumer products corporation active in more than 80 countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feminine hygiene</span> Personal care products for menstruation, vaginal discharge, etc.

Feminine hygiene products are personal care products used for women's hygiene during menstruation, vaginal discharge, or other bodily functions related to the vulva and vagina. Products that are used during menstruation may also be called menstrual hygiene products, including menstrual pads, tampons, pantyliners, menstrual cups, menstrual sponges and period panties. Feminine hygiene products also include products meant to cleanse the vulva or vagina, such as douches, feminine wipes, and soap.

An incontinence pad is a small, impermeable multi-layered sheet with high absorbency that is used in the incontinence and health-care industries as a precaution against fecal or urinary incontinence. It is generally made of cotton if washable, or nonwoven fabric paper if disposable. Incontinence diapers are a common incontinence pad. Incontinence pads are usually placed in an undergarment or on a bed or chair under a person. Incontinence pads are manufactured in light and heavy grades which offer a range of absorbencies, often referred to as a 'working capacity', which refers to the true absorbency an incontinence pad offers when in use. These sorts of pads can come as panty-liners, inserts, pads or even available as replacement underwear.

Always is an American brand of menstrual hygiene products, including maxi pads, ultra thin pads, pantyliners, disposable underwear for night-time wear, and vaginal wipes. A sister company of Procter & Gamble, it was first invented and introduced in the United States in 1983 by Tom Osborn, a mid-level employee at Procter & Gamble, then nationally in May 1984. By the end of 1984, Always had also been introduced internationally in the United Kingdom, Canada, France, Germany, Arab world, Pakistan and Africa. Despite the Always' pads runaway international success, Procter & Gamble almost fired Tom Osborn twice in the early 1980s as he was developing this product.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carefree (feminine hygiene)</span> American feminine hygiene brand

Carefree is an American brand of pantyliners from Johnson & Johnson. In the US, the Carefree brand was formerly marketed by McNeil-PPC and currently being marketed by Edgewell Personal Care.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cloth menstrual pad</span> Cloth pads to prevent menstrual fluid from leaking onto clothes

Cloth menstrual pads are cloth pads worn in the underwear to collect menstrual fluid. They are a type of reusable menstrual hygiene product, and are an alternative to sanitary napkins or to menstrual cups. Because they can be reused, they are generally less expensive than disposable pads over time, and reduce the amount of waste produced.

A papyrus sanitary pad, or Makapad, is a sanitary napkin made from papyrus, a natural material. It is reported to be 75 percent cheaper than a conventional menstrual pad and thus an advantage to the poor, as well as being highly absorbent. It is Africa's first hand-made menstrual hygiene product that is made completely with materials available locally, with its biggest production plant being in Kawempe. Makapad is an acronym used for menstruation, administration, knowledge, and affordability.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lil-lets</span>

Lil-lets is a brand providing feminine hygiene products that operates principally in the UK, Ireland and South Africa. Since 2000, the company has restructured through two management buyouts (MBO) to become a business crossing all sectors of the feminine hygiene market, including tampons, sanitary napkins, pantyliners and intimate care. They also do programmes for schools that teach young girls the changes that occur when they begin to menstruate.

Arbora & Ausonia was a company that dealt in the manufacturing and sale of absorbent products for the child and family hygiene, feminine hygiene and adult incontinence markets. It fully merged into Procter & Gamble in 2013.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arunachalam Muruganantham</span> Indian social entrepreneur (born 1961)

Arunachalam Muruganantham also known as Padman is a social entrepreneur from Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu, India. He is the inventor of a low-cost sanitary pad-making machine and is credited for innovating grassroots mechanisms for generating awareness about traditional unhygienic practices around menstruation in rural India. His mini-machines, which can manufacture sanitary pads for less than a third of the cost of commercial pads, have been installed in 23 of the 29 states of India in rural areas. He is currently planning to expand the production of these machines to 106 nations. The movie Period. End of Sentence. won the Academy Award for Best Documentary for the year 2018. The 2018 Hindi film Pad Man was made on his invention, where he was portrayed by Akshay Kumar.

Judith Esser-Mittag, commonly known as Judith Esser, was a German gynecologist. Her extensive studies of the female anatomy helped her to create an environmentally friendly tampon with no applicator.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nursing pads</span>

A nursing pad is a cloth or disposable pad worn against the nipple and breast of a nursing mother to absorb any milk that may leak between feedings. It is inserted between the bra and the breast. Disposable pads are common and located easily online or in specialty stores. Reusable cloth pads can be washed and used over. These may be less expensive. Changing the pad when it is wet will keep the nipple clean and dry.

Depend is a Kimberly-Clark brand of absorbent, disposable undergarments for people with urinary or fecal incontinence. It positions its products as an alternative to typical adult diapers. Depend is the dominant brand of disposable incontinence garments in the United States with a 49.4 share of the market.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bella (brand)</span>

Bella is a brand of feminine hygiene products, including maxi pads, ultra thin pads, and female wipes. Bella is currently owned by Polish company Toruńskie Zakłady Materiałów Opatrunkowych.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tampon tax</span> Value-added tax or sales tax charged on feminine hygiene products

Tampon tax is a popular term used to call attention to tampons, and other feminine hygiene products, being subject to value-added tax (VAT) or sales tax, unlike the tax exemption status granted to other products considered basic necessities. Proponents of tax exemption argue that tampons, menstrual pads, menstrual cups and comparable products constitute basic, unavoidable necessities for women, and any additional taxes constitute a pink tax.

Sustainable menstruation refers to the use of environmentally-friendly and responsible menstrual products.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Menstrual hygiene management</span> Access to menstrual hygiene products and disposal of used products

Menstrual hygiene management (MHM) or menstrual health and hygiene (MHH) refers to access to menstrual hygiene products to absorb or collect the flow of blood during menstruation, privacy to change the materials, and access to facilities to dispose of used menstrual management materials. It can also include the "broader systemic factors that link menstruation with health, well-being, gender equality, education, equity, empowerment, and rights". Menstrual hygiene management can be particularly challenging for girls and women in developing countries, where clean water and toilet facilities are often inadequate. Menstrual waste is largely ignored in schools in developing countries, despite it being a significant problem. Menstruation can be a barrier to education for many girls, as a lack of effective sanitary products restricts girls' involvement in educational and social activities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Period underwear</span> Menstrual garment

Period underwear are absorbent garments designed to be worn during menstruation. Period underwear is designed like conventional underwear but it is made up of highly absorbent fabrics to soak up menstrual blood. Most commercially manufactured period underwear makes use of microfiber polyester fabric. It is recommended that period underwear should be changed every 8-12 hours to avoid leakage and infection.

References

  1. ↑ "14 Important Questions about Hygiene During Your Period". flo.health. Retrieved 2021-02-26.
  2. ↑ Hogue, Cheryl (October 17, 2022). "What is in period products?". Chemical & Engineering News . 100 (37). American Chemical Society: 38–42. ISSN   0009-2347 . Retrieved 29 October 2022.
  3. ↑ Video on YouTube
  4. ↑ "Procter & Gamble's Always Brand Delivers Innovation to Feminine Care Category With Launch of Always Infinity(TM)". news.pg.com. Retrieved 2023-07-15.
  5. ↑ "Hemphill v. Procter & Gamble Co., 258 F. Supp. 2d 410 (D. Md. 2003)". justia.com.
  6. ↑ cindy (2023-06-22). "What is a Sanitary Towel Burner: Its Uses and Benefits". Sanitation Towel and Pads. Retrieved 2023-07-15.
  7. ↑ "From the Collection of MUM: Washable Menstrual Pads and Underpants". www.mum.org.
  8. ↑ "Continence products". Continence Foundation of Australia. Retrieved 2023-07-15.
  9. 1 2 "What did American and European women use for menstruation in the past? at MUM". www.mum.org.
  10. ↑ "Knitted Norwegian Pads". www.mum.org. Museum of Menstruation and Women's Health.
  11. ↑ "Suda online, Upsilon 166". www.stoa.org. The Stoa Consortium.
  12. ↑ Deakin, Michael A. B. (1888). "Hypatia and Her Mathematics". The American Mathematical Monthly. 101 (3): 234–243. doi:10.2307/2975600. JSTOR   2975600.
  13. ↑ "Egyptians used papyrus—and other ways of handling periods through the years". History. 2023-11-29. Retrieved 2023-12-01.
  14. ↑ "Feminine Hygiene Products". Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
  15. ↑ Newton, Victoria (2016). Everyday Discourses of Menstruation: Cultural and Social Perspectives. Macmillan Publishers Ltd. London. p. 139. ISBN   978-1-137-48775-9 . Retrieved 20 June 2019.
  16. ↑ "What European and American women in the past wore when menstruating". www.mum.org. Museum of Menstruation and Women's Health.
  17. 1 2 "dry-weave sanitary napkin, sanitary napkin with wings, disposable sanitary napkin". sanitary-product.com. Archived from the original on 2008-05-09.
  18. 1 2 "Inside the Museum of Menstruation 6". www.mum.org.
  19. ↑ "Mothers and Daughters of Invention." Google Books. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Dec. 2014.
  20. ↑ "We've Come a Long Way with Menstruation Products | PantiePads". www.pantiepads.com. Retrieved 2022-09-13.
  21. ↑ "Who Invented the Sanitary Towel?". Southall Trust. 20 January 2022.
  22. ↑ "6 things you never knew were invented by Quakers". Quakers.
  23. ↑ "Ads for early Southall's disposable menstrual pads in the U.K. at MUM". www.mum.org.
  24. ↑ "The Product that Dared Not Speak Its Name". Kilmer House. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  25. ↑ "Ads for Hartmann's menstrual pad (1890s)". www.mum.org. Museum of Menstruation and Women's Health.
  26. ↑ "History of MODESS Sanitary Napkins". Johnson & Johnson: Our Story. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  27. ↑ Finley, Harry (2016). "Excerpts from "A Company That Cares," Johnson & Johnson history". Museum of Menstruation and Women's Health. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  28. ↑ Finley, Harry (2016). "Discussion of the Report of Gilbreth, Inc., (1, Introduction) to Johnson & Johnson, 1927". Museum of Menstruation and Women's Health. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  29. ↑ Bullough, Vern L. (1985). "Merchandising the Sanitary Napkin: Lillian Gilbreth's 1927 Survey". Signs. 10 (3): 615–627. doi:10.1086/494174. ISSN   0097-9740. JSTOR   3174280. PMID   11618103. S2CID   44619623.
  30. ↑ Bullough, Vern L. (1985). "Merchandising the Sanitary Napkin: Lillian Gilbreth's 1927 Survey". Signs. 10 (3): 615–627. doi:10.1086/494174. ISSN   0097-9740. JSTOR   3174280. PMID   11618103. S2CID   44619623.
  31. 1 2 "The Forgotten Black Woman Inventor Who Revolutionized Menstrual Pads". VICE. 2018-03-08. Retrieved 2020-05-07.
  32. ↑ Laura S. Jeffrey (1 July 2013). Amazing American Inventors of the 20th Century. Enslow Publishing, LLC. ISBN   978-1-4646-1159-9.
  33. ↑ Gustafson, Kristi (30 November 2010). "Female passenger subjected to patdown after her sanitary napkin showed up on body scanner". San Francisco Chronicle . Retrieved 30 November 2010.
  34. ↑ Clark-Flory, Tracy (5 November 2008). "A whole new "View"". Salon.
  35. ↑ Friedman, Thomas L. (April 6, 2007). "Cellphones, Maxi-Pads and Other Life-Changing Tools". The New York Times . Nairobi, Kenya. p. 1.
  36. ↑ Candid. "Gates Foundation Awards $24 Million for Women and Girl's Well-Being". Philanthropy News Digest (PND). Retrieved 2019-09-22.
  37. ↑ Howard, Caroline. "The First Woman Of Women: How Melinda Gates Became The World's Most Powerful Advocate For Women And Girls". Forbes. Retrieved 2019-09-22.
  38. ↑ Higgins, Abigail (2017-01-05). "Having a period is unaffordable in Kenya, yet no one wants to talk about it". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 2019-09-22.
  39. ↑ February 24, 2020, Monday (20 September 2020). "Menstruation: Private groups boost efforts to keep girls in school". Business Daily. Retrieved 2021-02-14.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  40. ↑ "ZanaAfrica Mission and Vision" . Retrieved 8 October 2019.
  41. ↑ http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/nov/02/toxic-pfas-menstrual-pads-carefree-edgewell
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