Menstrual suppression

Last updated

Menstrual suppression refers to the practice of using hormonal management to stop or reduce menstrual bleeding. In contrast to surgical options for this purpose, such as hysterectomy or endometrial ablation, hormonal methods to manipulate menstruation are reversible.

Contents

There are a number of medical conditions for which fewer menstrual periods and less blood loss may be beneficial. [1] [2] In addition, suppression of hormonal cyclicity may benefit menstrual-related mood swings or other conditions which increase in frequency with menses. [3] Management of menstruation may be a challenge for those with developmental delay or intellectual disability, and menstrual suppression can benefit individuals with specific job- or activity-related needs. [1] [4] There is increasing attention being given to menstrual suppression for transgender men and non-binary transmasculine people who may experience dysphoria with menstruation. [5] Menstrual suppression is also being used by individuals with a variety of personal reasons to have less frequent or no menses, including honeymoon, vacations, travel, or other specific reasons.

Options for menstrual suppression include hormonal medications like extended cycle combined hormonal contraceptive pills, progestogen-only contraceptives (including progestogen-only pills, progestogen-containing implants, progestogen-containing intrauterine devices, and progestogen-only injectable contraceptives), gonadotropin-releasing hormone modulators, and testosterone, as well as the surgical options of hysterectomy (removal of the uterus) and endometrial ablation (removal of the endometrium). [6] [7] Most options for the suppression of menstrual bleeding are not immediately 100% effective, and with many options, unscheduled bleeding (termed "breakthrough bleeding") can occur; for many options for menstrual suppression, breakthrough bleeding becomes less frequent with time. [8]

Medical uses

Hormonal therapies to reduce or stop menstrual bleeding have long been used to manage a number of gynecologic conditions including menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea), heavy menstrual bleeding, irregular or other abnormal uterine bleeding, menstrual-related mood changes (premenstrual syndrome or premenstrual dysphoric disorder), and pelvic pain due to endometriosis or uterine fibroids. [1] [9] [10] [2] [11] Medical conditions that are associated with anemia or excessive blood loss, including sickle cell disease, iron deficiency anemia, Fanconi anemia, von Willebrand disease, low platelets (thrombocytopenia) from immune thrombocytopenia, or other blood/hematologic disorders such as clotting factor deficiencies could all benefit from menstrual suppression. [1] [2] In patients with malignancies who will receive chemotherapy that could result in low blood counts or anemia, or individuals with recurrent malignancies who will receive a stem cell transplant, excessive menstrual bleeding during this treatment could be medically serious, and thus menstrual suppression might be indicated. [1] [12] In addition, there are a number of other medical conditions with menstrual exacerbation that may benefit from menstrual suppression, including catamenial seizures, menstrual migraine headaches, irritable bowel syndrome, and asthma. [1]

Menstrual hygiene issues, as in those individuals with developmental delay or intellectual disability or other manual dexterity or mobility/wheelchair challenges such as spina bifida or cerebral palsy may prompt an individual or caregiver to request menstrual suppression. [13] [14] Job- or activity-related indications for menstrual suppression may include deployed military as occurred during Operation Desert Storm, travel, wilderness camping, astronauts, or athletes with concerns about menses occurring during competition or training. [1] There is also a growing recognition that transgender men and non-binary transmasculine people may experience dysphoria with menses, and thus may request medical therapy for menstrual suppression. [15] [16]

Contraindications

The use of hormonal methods containing estrogen (combined oral contraceptives, the contraceptive patch or contraceptive ring), may be associated with risks that outweigh benefits for individuals with specific medical problems, such as migraine headaches with aura, a history of breast cancer, or a history of deep vein thrombosis. [17] Thus these options would be contraindicated for menstrual suppression with such conditions. Progestin-only options (depot medroxyprogesterone acetate, oral progestins) are appropriate for these individuals. Drug-drug interactions are also important to consider, particularly with combined hormonal options.[ citation needed ]

Safety

Because extended cycle regimens of combined hormonal contraceptives provide a greater cumulative dose of steroid hormones, questions have been raised about their safety. Data currently provide reassurance that these options are safe. [9] [10] [18]

Options

While some forms of birth control do not affect the menstrual cycle, hormonal contraceptives work by disrupting it. Progestogen negative feedback decreases the pulse frequency of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) release by the hypothalamus, which decreases the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) by the anterior pituitary. Decreased levels of FSH inhibit follicular development, preventing an increase in estradiol levels. Progestogen negative feedback and the lack of estrogen positive feedback on LH release prevent a mid-cycle LH surge. Inhibition of follicular development and the absence of an LH surge prevent ovulation. [19] [20] [21]

Combined hormonal contraceptives

The use of combined hormonal contraceptives such as the pill, the patch, and the vaginal ring are methods of contraception that contain both an estrogen and progestogen. These methods have traditionally been used in a cyclic fashion, with three weeks (21 days) of hormones, followed by a 7-day hormone-free interval (with combined oral contraceptives, often with a week of placebo pills) during which time withdrawal bleeding or a hormonally-induced menstrual period occurs, mimicking an idealized spontaneous menstrual cycle. [22] When these methods are taken without the hormone-free week, the withdrawal bleeding is reduced or eliminated. Thus extended cycle combined hormonal contraceptive pills are commonly used for menstrual suppression, although breakthrough bleeding is common in the initial months of use. The rate of amenorrhea (no bleeding) is in the range of 60% for users who are continuing to use combined hormonal contraceptive pills at the end of a year.

Combined hormonal contraceptives include both an estrogen and a progestogen. Estrogen negative feedback on the anterior pituitary greatly decreases the release of FSH, which makes combined hormonal contraceptives more effective at inhibiting follicular development and preventing ovulation. Estrogen also reduces the incidence of irregular breakthrough bleeding. [19] [20] [21] Several combined hormonal contraceptives—the pill, vaginal ring, and contraceptive patch—are usually used in a way that causes regular withdrawal bleeding. In a normal cycle, menstruation occurs when estrogen and progesterone levels drop rapidly. [23] Temporarily discontinuing use of combined hormonal contraceptives (a placebo week, not using patch or ring for a week) has a similar effect of causing the uterine lining to shed. If withdrawal bleeding is not desired, combined hormonal contraceptives may be taken continuously, although this increases the risk of breakthrough bleeding.[ medical citation needed ]

Progestogen-only contraceptives

Progestogen-only medications, including progestogen-only pills and a slow-release (depot) injectable medication, depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA; Depo-Provera) do not contain an estrogen. DMPA is given as an injection every 90 days, and is typically associated with amenorrhea in about 50 to 60% of users at the end of one year. Progestogens that are not typically used for birth control, such as norethisterone acetate, may be used to induce amenorrhea. [24]

The degree of ovulation suppression in progestogen-only contraceptives depends on the progestogenic activity and dose of the formulation used. Low-dose progestogen-only contraceptives, including traditional progestogen-only pills (e.g., norethisterone (Micronor, Nor-QD, Noriday)), levonorgestrel-releasing implants (Norplant, Jadelle), and hormonal intrauterine devices (IUDs) (e.g., levonorgestrel (Mirena)), inhibit ovulation in about 50% of cycles and rely mainly on other effects, such as thickening of cervical mucus, for their contraceptive effectiveness. [25] Intermediate-dose progestogen-only contraceptives, including the progestogen-only pill desogestrel (Cerazette) and the subdermal implant etonogestrel (Nexplanon, Implanon), allow some follicular development but more consistently inhibit ovulation in 97 to 99% of cycles. The same cervical mucus changes occur as with very low-dose progestogens. High-dose progestogen-only contraceptives—the injectables DMPA (Depo-Provera) and norethisterone enanthate (Noristerat)—completely inhibit follicular development and ovulation. [25]

Injections such as DMPA became available in the 1960s and later became used to also achieve amenorrhea. A majority of patients will achieve amenorrhea within 1 year of initiating DMPA therapy. DMPA therapy is typically successful in achieving amenorrhea but also has side effects of decreased bone mineral density that must be considered before beginning therapy. [12]

When using the subdermal progestogen-only implants, unpredictable bleeding continues and amenorrhea is not commonly achieved amongst patients. [12] Progestogen-only contraceptive pills (sometimes called the "mini pill") are taken continuously without a 7-day span of using placebo pills, and therefore menstrual periods are less likely to occur than with the combined pill with placebo pills. However, disturbance of the menstrual cycle is common with the mini-pill; one-third to one-half of women taking it will experience prolonged periods, and up to 70% experience break-through bleeding (metrorrhagia). Irregular and prolonged bleeding is the most common reason that women discontinue using the mini pill. [26]

Hormonal IUDs containing the progestogen levonorgestrel have the side effect of inducing amenorrhea, and some types of IUDs have been shown to markedly decrease menstrual blood loss, and thus are efficacious in treating heavy and abnormal menstrual bleeding. [27] The rate of amenorrhea after one year of use is in the range of 20 to 50%, although most users of the hormonal IUDs Mirena and Liletta experience a marked decrease in menstrual bleeding, which is beneficial and has led to reported high rates of user satisfaction.

Levonorgestrel IUDs have also been used been shown to induce amenorrhea. The lower dose device has a lower rate of achieving amenorrhea compared to the higher dose device where 50% of users have been found to achieve amenorrhea within 1 year of use. A concern for usage of these devices is the invasive administration and initial breakthrough bleeding while utilizing these devices however they have the advantage of the most infrequent dosing schedule of every 5 years. Use of IUDs have also shown to reduce menorrhagia and dysmenorrhea. [12] [28]

Others

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) modulators, including both GnRH agonists and GnRH antagonists, are associated with amenorrhea, and have been used to induce therapeutic amenorrhea. Among oncologists caring for adolescents with cancer, GnRH modulators were the most commonly recommended treatment for menstrual suppression to prevent or treat heavy bleeding during therapy. [12]

The hormonal agent danazol (Danocrine) was once used for the treatment of endometriosis, and was associated with amenorrhea, but its use was limited by androgenic side effects such as the potential for permanent lowering of the voice or hair growth. Because these side effects may be desired in transgender men and non-binary transmasculine people, there has been some consideration of this option for menstrual population in this group of individuals.

Testosterone and its esters are effective as a form of menstrual suppression and help to suppress menstruation in transgender men and non-binary transmasculine people. [6] Testosterone is not used in cisgender women due to its masculinizing effects at required doses. Other anabolic–androgenic steroids, such as nandrolone and oxandrolone, may also produce menstrual suppression at sufficiently high doses.

History

Historically, women and girls had far fewer menstrual periods throughout their lifetimes, a result of shorter life expectancies, as well as a greater length of time spent pregnant or breast-feeding, which reduced the number of periods they experienced. [29]

When the first birth control pill was being developed, the researchers were aware that they could use the contraceptive to space menstrual periods up to 90 days apart, but they settled on a 28-day cycle that would mimic a natural menstrual cycle and produce monthly periods. The intention behind this decision was the hope of the inventor, John Rock, to win approval for his invention from the Roman Catholic Church. That attempt failed, but the 28-day cycle remained the standard when the pill became available to the public. [30]

Historically, the concept that menstruation did not have beneficial effects, and that menstruation could be controlled was raised in the 1990s, by Dr. Elsimar Coutinho. [31] The English language version, title, "Is Menstruation Obsolete: How suppressing menstruation can help women who suffer from anemia, endometriosis, or PMS?" was published in 1999.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emergency contraception</span> Birth control measures taken after sexual intercourse

Emergency contraception (EC) is a birth control measure, used after sexual intercourse to prevent pregnancy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Combined oral contraceptive pill</span> Birth control method which is taken orally

The combined oral contraceptive pill (COCP), often referred to as the birth control pill or colloquially as "the pill", is a type of birth control that is designed to be taken orally by women. The pill contains two important hormones: a progestin and estrogen. When taken correctly, it alters the menstrual cycle to eliminate ovulation and prevent pregnancy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Menstruation</span> Shedding of the uterine lining

Menstruation is the regular discharge of blood and mucosal tissue from the inner lining of the uterus through the vagina. The menstrual cycle is characterized by the rise and fall of hormones. Menstruation is triggered by falling progesterone levels and is a sign that pregnancy has not occurred.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ovulation</span> Release of egg cells from the ovaries

Ovulation is the release of eggs from the ovaries. In women, this event occurs when the ovarian follicles rupture and release the secondary oocyte ovarian cells. After ovulation, during the luteal phase, the egg will be available to be fertilized by sperm. In addition, the uterine lining (endometrium) is thickened to be able to receive a fertilized egg. If no conception occurs, the uterine lining as well as the egg will be shed during menstruation.

Amenorrhea is the absence of a menstrual period in a woman of reproductive age. Physiological states of amenorrhoea are seen, most commonly, during pregnancy and lactation (breastfeeding). Outside the reproductive years, there is absence of menses during childhood and after menopause.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Progestogen (medication)</span> Medication producing effects similar to progesterone

A progestogen, also referred to as a progestagen, gestagen, or gestogen, is a type of medication which produces effects similar to those of the natural female sex hormone progesterone in the body. A progestin is a synthetic progestogen. Progestogens are used most commonly in hormonal birth control and menopausal hormone therapy. They can also be used in the treatment of gynecological conditions, to support fertility and pregnancy, to lower sex hormone levels for various purposes, and for other indications. Progestogens are used alone or in combination with estrogens. They are available in a wide variety of formulations and for use by many different routes of administration. Examples of progestogens include natural or bioidentical progesterone as well as progestins such as medroxyprogesterone acetate and norethisterone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Levonorgestrel</span> Hormonal medication used for birth control

Levonorgestrel is a hormonal medication which is used in a number of birth control methods. It is combined with an estrogen to make combination birth control pills. As an emergency birth control, sold under the brand name Plan B One-Step among others, it is useful within 72 hours of unprotected sex. The more time that has passed since sex, the less effective the medication becomes, and it does not work after pregnancy (implantation) has occurred. Levonorgestrel works by preventing ovulation or fertilization from occurring. It decreases the chances of pregnancy by 57 to 93%. In an intrauterine device (IUD), such as Mirena among others, it is effective for the long-term prevention of pregnancy. A levonorgestrel-releasing implant is also available in some countries.

Progestogen-only pills or progestin-only pills (POP) are contraceptive pills that contain only synthetic progestogens (progestins) and do not contain estrogen. They are colloquially known as mini pills.

Extended or continuous cycle combined oral contraceptive pills are a packaging of combined oral contraceptive pills (COCPs) that reduce or eliminate the withdrawal bleeding that would occur once every 28 days in traditionally packaged COCPs. It works by reducing the frequency of the pill-free or placebo days. Extended cycle use of COCPs may also be called menstrual suppression, although other hormonal medications or medication delivery systems may also be used to suppress menses. Any brand of combined oral contraceptive pills can be used in an extended or continuous manner by simply discarding the placebo pills; this is most commonly done with monophasic pills in which all of the pills in a package contain the same fixed dosing of a synthetic estrogen and a progestin in each active pill.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Norethisterone acetate</span> Chemical compound

Norethisterone acetate (NETA), also known as norethindrone acetate and sold under the brand name Primolut-Nor among others, is a progestin medication which is used in birth control pills, menopausal hormone therapy, and for the treatment of gynecological disorders. The medication available in low-dose and high-dose formulations and is used alone or in combination with an estrogen. It is ingested orally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vaginal ring</span>

Vaginal rings are polymeric drug delivery devices designed to provide controlled release of drugs for intravaginal administration over extended periods of time. The ring is inserted into the vagina and provides contraception protection. Vaginal rings come in one size that fits most women.

Intermenstrual bleeding, previously known as metrorrhagia, is uterine bleeding at irregular intervals, particularly between the expected menstrual periods. It is a cause of vaginal bleeding.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Menstrual disorder</span> Medical condition affecting menstrual cycle

A menstrual disorder is characterized as any abnormal condition with regards to a person's menstrual cycle. There are many different types of menstrual disorders that vary with signs and symptoms, including pain during menstruation, heavy bleeding, or absence of menstruation. Normal variations can occur in menstrual patterns but generally menstrual disorders can also include periods that come sooner than 21 days apart, more than 3 months apart, or last more than 10 days in duration. Variations of the menstrual cycle are mainly caused by the immaturity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) axis, and early detection and management is required in order to minimize the possibility of complications regarding future reproductive ability.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hormonal contraception</span> Birth control methods that act on the endocrine system

Hormonal contraception refers to birth control methods that act on the endocrine system. Almost all methods are composed of steroid hormones, although in India one selective estrogen receptor modulator is marketed as a contraceptive. The original hormonal method—the combined oral contraceptive pill—was first marketed as a contraceptive in 1960. In the ensuing decades many other delivery methods have been developed, although the oral and injectable methods are by far the most popular. Hormonal contraception is highly effective: when taken on the prescribed schedule, users of steroid hormone methods experience pregnancy rates of less than 1% per year. Perfect-use pregnancy rates for most hormonal contraceptives are usually around the 0.3% rate or less. Currently available methods can only be used by women; the development of a male hormonal contraceptive is an active research area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mestranol</span> Chemical compound

Mestranol, sold under the brand names Enovid, Norinyl, and Ortho-Novum among others, is an estrogen medication which has been used in birth control pills, menopausal hormone therapy, and the treatment of menstrual disorders. It is formulated in combination with a progestin and is not available alone. It is taken by mouth.

Hypomenorrhea or hypomenorrhoea, also known as short or scanty periods, is extremely light menstrual blood flow. It is the opposite of heavy periods or hypermenorrhea which is more properly called menorrhagia.

Long-acting reversible contraceptives (LARC) are methods of birth control that provide effective contraception for an extended period without requiring user action. They include injections, intrauterine devices (IUDs), and subdermal contraceptive implants. They are the most effective reversible methods of contraception because their efficacy is not reliant on patient compliance. The typical use failure rates of IUDs and implants, less than 1% per year, are about the same as perfect use failure rates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Medroxyprogesterone acetate</span> Injectible form of birth control

Medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA), also known as depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) in injectable form and sold under the brand name Depo-Provera among others, is a hormonal medication of the progestin type. It is used as a method of birth control and as a part of menopausal hormone therapy. It is also used to treat endometriosis, abnormal uterine bleeding, abnormal sexuality in males, and certain types of cancer. The medication is available both alone and in combination with an estrogen. It is taken by mouth, used under the tongue, or by injection into a muscle or fat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intrauterine device</span> Form of birth control involving a device placed in the uterus

An intrauterine device (IUD), also known as intrauterine contraceptive device or coil, is a small, often T-shaped birth control device that is inserted into the uterus to prevent pregnancy. IUDs are one form of long-acting reversible birth control (LARC). One study found that female family planning providers choose LARC methods more often (41.7%) than the general public (12.1%). Among birth control methods, IUDs, along with other contraceptive implants, result in the greatest satisfaction among users.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Combined hormonal contraception</span> Form of hormonal contraception combining both an estrogen and a progestogen

Combined hormonal contraception (CHC), or combined birth control, is a form of hormonal contraception which combines both an estrogen and a progestogen in varying formulations.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Altshuler, Anna Lea; Hillard, Paula J. Adams (2014). "Menstrual suppression for adolescents". Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 26 (5): 323–331. doi:10.1097/GCO.0000000000000098. ISSN   1040-872X. PMID   25110977. S2CID   43436578.
  2. 1 2 3 Kaunitz, A. M. (2000). "Menstruation: choosing whether...and when". Contraception. 62 (6): 277–284. doi:10.1016/s0010-7824(00)00182-7. ISSN   0010-7824. PMID   11239613.
  3. ↑ Rapkin, Andrea J; Lewis, Erin I (2013). "Treatment of Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder". Women's Health. 9 (6): 537–556. doi: 10.2217/WHE.13.62 . ISSN   1745-5065. PMID   24161307.
  4. ↑ "ACOG Committee Opinion No. 448: Menstrual Manipulation for Adolescents With Disabilities". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 114 (6): 1428–1431. 2009. doi: 10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181c6f922 . ISSN   0029-7844. PMID   20134299.
  5. ↑ Schwartz, Amanda R.; Russell, Kristen; Gray, Beverly A. (2019). "Approaches to Vaginal Bleeding and Contraceptive Counseling in Transgender and Gender Nonbinary Patients". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 134 (1): 81–90. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000003308. ISSN   0029-7844. PMID   31188325. S2CID   186205682.
  6. 1 2 Pradhan S, Gomez-Lobo V (September 2019). "Hormonal Contraceptives, Intrauterine Devices, Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone Analogues and Testosterone: Menstrual Suppression in Special Adolescent Populations". J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. 32 (5S): S23–S29. doi:10.1016/j.jpag.2019.04.007. PMID   30980941. S2CID   113407509.
  7. ↑ Hillard PA (2014). "Menstrual suppression: current perspectives". Int J Women's Health. 6: 631–7. doi:10.2147/IJWH.S46680. PMC   4075955 . PMID   25018654.
  8. ↑ Nelson, Anita L. (2007). "Communicating with Patients about Extended-cycle and Continuous Use of Oral Contraceptives". Journal of Women's Health. 16 (4): 463–470. doi:10.1089/jwh.2006.0206. ISSN   1540-9996. PMID   17521249.
  9. 1 2 Nappi, Rossella E.; Kaunitz, Andrew M.; Bitzer, Johannes (2016-03-03). "Extended regimen combined oral contraception: A review of evolving concepts and acceptance by women and clinicians". The European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care. 21 (2): 106–115. doi:10.3109/13625187.2015.1107894. ISSN   1362-5187. PMC   4841029 . PMID   26572318.
  10. 1 2 Edelman, Alison; Micks, Elizabeth; Gallo, Maria F; Jensen, Jeffrey T; Grimes, David A (2014-07-29). Cochrane Fertility Regulation Group (ed.). "Continuous or extended cycle vs. cyclic use of combined hormonal contraceptives for contraception". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2014 (7): CD004695. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004695.pub3. PMC   6837850 . PMID   25072731.
  11. ↑ Archer, David F. (2006). "Menstrual-cycle-related symptoms: a review of the rationale for continuous use of oral contraceptives". Contraception. 74 (5): 359–366. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2006.06.003. PMID   17046376.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Close, Allison G.; Jones, Kelley A.; Landowski, Allison; Switzer, Galen E.; Kazmerski, Traci M.; Miller, Elizabeth; Friehling, Erika (2019-08-23). "Current practices in menstrual management in adolescents with cancer: A national survey of pediatric oncology providers". Pediatric Blood & Cancer. 66 (12): e27961. doi:10.1002/pbc.27961. ISSN   1545-5009. PMID   31441217. S2CID   201618230.
  13. ↑ Chuah, Irene; McRae, Alexandra; Matthews, Kim; Maguire, Ann M.; Steinbeck, Katharine (2017). "Menstrual management in developmentally delayed adolescent females". Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 57 (3): 346–350. doi:10.1111/ajo.12595. PMID   28299789. S2CID   4444056.
  14. ↑ American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Committee on Adolescent Health Care (2009). "ACOG Committee Opinion No. 448: Menstrual manipulation for adolescents with disabilities". Obstetrics and Gynecology. 114 (6): 1428–1431. doi: 10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181c6f922 . ISSN   1873-233X. PMID   20134299.
  15. ↑ Chrisler, Joan C.; Gorman, Jennifer A.; Manion, Jen; Murgo, Michael; Barney, Angela; Adams-Clark, Alexis; Newton, Jessica R.; McGrath, Meaghan (2016). "Queer periods: attitudes toward and experiences with menstruation in the masculine of centre and transgender community". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 18 (11): 1238–1250. doi:10.1080/13691058.2016.1182645. ISSN   1369-1058. PMID   27212580. S2CID   205798509.
  16. ↑ Pradhan, Shashwati; Gomez-Lobo, Veronica (2019). "Hormonal Contraceptives, Intrauterine Devices, Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone Analogues and Testosterone: Menstrual Suppression in Special Adolescent Populations". Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology. 32 (5): S23–S29. doi:10.1016/j.jpag.2019.04.007. PMID   30980941. S2CID   113407509.
  17. ↑ Curtis, Kathryn M.; Tepper, Naomi K.; Jatlaoui, Tara C.; Berry-Bibee, Erin; Horton, Leah G.; Zapata, Lauren B.; Simmons, Katharine B.; Pagano, H. Pamela; Jamieson, Denise J. (2016-07-29). "U.S. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use, 2016". MMWR. Recommendations and Reports. 65 (3): 1–103. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.rr6503a1 . ISSN   1057-5987. PMID   27467196.
  18. ↑ Mendoza, Nicolás; Lobo, Paloma; Lertxundi, Roberto; Correa, Marta; Gonzalez, Esteban; Salamanca, Alberto; Sánchez-Borrego, Rafael (2014). "Extended regimens of combined hormonal contraception to reduce symptoms related to withdrawal bleeding and the hormone-free interval: A systematic review of randomised and observational studies". The European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care. 19 (5): 321–339. doi:10.3109/13625187.2014.927423. ISSN   1362-5187. PMID   24971489. S2CID   28881452.
  19. 1 2 Trussell J (2007). "Contraceptive Efficacy". In Hatcher, Robert A., et al. (eds.). Contraceptive Technology (19th rev. ed.). New York: Ardent Media. ISBN   978-0-9664902-0-6.
  20. 1 2 Speroff L, Darney PD (2005). "Oral Contraception". A Clinical Guide for Contraception (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 21–138. ISBN   978-0-7817-6488-9.
  21. 1 2 Brunton LL, Lazo JS, Parker K, eds. (2005). Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (11th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 1541–71. ISBN   978-0-07-142280-2.
  22. ↑ Wright KP, Johnson JV (October 2008). "Evaluation of extended and continuous use oral contraceptives". Ther Clin Risk Manag. 4 (5): 905–11. doi:10.2147/tcrm.s2143. PMC   2621397 . PMID   19209272.
  23. ↑ Weschler 2002, pp. 361–2.
  24. ↑ Hillard, Paula (2014). "Menstrual suppression: current perspectives". International Journal of Women's Health. 6: 631–7. doi:10.2147/IJWH.S46680. ISSN   1179-1411. PMC   4075955 . PMID   25018654.
  25. 1 2 Glasier A (2006). "Contraception". In DeGroot LJ, Jameson JL (eds.). Endocrinology (5th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders. pp.  3000–1. ISBN   978-0-7216-0376-6.
  26. ↑ Kovacs, G. (October 1996). "Progestogen-only pills and bleeding disturbances". Human Reproduction (Oxford, England). 11 Suppl 2: 20–23. doi: 10.1093/humrep/11.suppl_2.20 . ISSN   0268-1161. PMID   8982741.
  27. ↑ Matteson, Kristen A.; Rahn, David D.; Wheeler, Thomas L.; Casiano, Elizabeth; Siddiqui, Nazema Y.; Harvie, Heidi S.; Mamik, Mamta M.; Balk, Ethan M.; Sung, Vivian W. (2013). "Nonsurgical Management of Heavy Menstrual Bleeding: A Systematic Review". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 121 (3): 632–643. doi:10.1097/AOG.0b013e3182839e0e. ISSN   0029-7844. PMC   4414119 . PMID   23635628.
  28. ↑ Schmidt, Elizabeth O.; James, Aimee; Curran, K. Michele; Peipert, Jeffrey F.; Madden, Tessa (October 2015). "Adolescent Experiences With Intrauterine Devices: A Qualitative Study". The Journal of Adolescent Health. 57 (4): 381–386. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.05.001. ISSN   1879-1972. PMC   4583802 . PMID   26126950.
  29. ↑ Lind A, Brzuzy S (2007). Battleground: Women, Gender, and Sexuality: Volume 2: M–Z. Greenwood. p. 348. ISBN   978-0-313-34039-0.
  30. ↑ "Do you really need to have a period every month?". Discovery Health. 27 January 2009. Archived from the original on 8 February 2013. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
  31. ↑ Coutinho, Elsimar M. (1999). Is menstruation obsolete?. Segal, Sheldon J. (Sheldon Jerome), Coutinho, Elsimar M. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN   1423760409. OCLC   65181385.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.