Menstrual stigma

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This photo shows unused and used tampons, while the advertisement employs euphemistic colors, such as blue instead of red Used and unused tampon.jpg
This photo shows unused and used tampons, while the advertisement employs euphemistic colors, such as blue instead of red

Menstrual stigma refers to the negative social and cultural perceptions, beliefs, taboos, and practices surrounding menstruation. [1] It encompasses the perception of menstruation as impure or shameful and often leads to secrecy and emotional distress. The manifestation of menstrual stigma varies across cultures and may have profound effects on mental health, social participation, and opportunities. Strategies aimed at addressing menstrual stigma typically involve educational and awareness initiatives.

Contents

Stigmatization

Cultural variations

Menstruation, deeply intertwined with intricate cultural beliefs, is often accompanied by taboos, myths, stigmatization, negative emotions, and feelings of shame. [1] [2] [3] The associated beliefs and practices exhibit variations influenced by factors like country, religion, and social status. [4] [5] Cultural norms play a pivotal role in determining whether menstruation is a source of social stigma that is concealed or observable. For instance, in the United States, menstruation is predominantly concealed owing to societal norms of secrecy. In certain societies like Nepal, the onset of menstruation is commemorated through public rituals, and those undergoing menstruation may be secluded. [4] [6]

The notion that menstruation is a cause of impurity and danger has persisted into the contemporary era. According to a survey conducted by the World Health Organization involving women from 10 different countries, certain cultures still view menstruating women as impure, leading to restrictions in their religious or social activities. The WHO survey not only recorded both negative and positive attitudes toward menstruation but also highlighted culturally enforced sanctions (such as being prohibited from cooking) and self-imposed restrictions (such as refraining from washing one's hair). [4] [7] [8]

Euphemisms

People often use euphemisms like "time of the month," "Aunt Flow," and "on the rag" to refer to menstruation, highlighting the discomfort and stigma associated with it. [9] This stigma is a global phenomenon, with menstruation often seen as something impure that should be kept private. Many individuals, from a young age, are taught that menstruation is something to be concealed or hidden for women to lead their everyday lives. [2] [10] The media plays a role in perpetuating this stigma through advertisements that stress secrecy, avoidance of embarrassment, and freshness. They also use euphemistic images and colors (like blue instead of red) to describe menstruation. [11] [12] [13] Menstrual stigma can be passed on through educational materials, communication (or lack thereof), and the language used to discuss it (e.g., euphemisms). [1] [12]

Activism

Feminists and various activists have countered negative depictions of menstruation by advocating for positive perspectives. They do so primarily through educational and media campaigns, consciousness-raising efforts, and by challenging conventional representations of menstruation. These actions aim to promote more affirming views of menstruation within various institutions like education, healthcare, families, and media. [14] [15] While feminist scholars and activists have endeavored to encourage the celebration of menarche and menstruation, their positive messages may be eclipsed or obscured by the prevailing stigmatizing narratives. [12]

Consequences

The menstrual stigma can have detrimental effects on various aspects of women's lives, including their overall well-being, somatic and mental health, social status, and sexual activity. [1] [16] [12] [2] Women who internalize these negative attitudes often take active measures to hide their menstrual status, such as wearing loose clothing and avoiding certain activities to prevent any signs. [2] This constant effort to conceal their menstruation leads to increased self-awareness, heightened vigilance, and a sense of shame related to their periods. [12] [16] Failing to hide it can make them feel as though they've fallen short of societal expectations of proper menstrual etiquette. [2] The stigma can have adverse effects on women's sexual lives since engaging in sexual activity during menstruation is often viewed as socially unacceptable. [1] [3] [17] Both men and women may use derogatory terms like "disgusting," "smelly," "awkward," "dirty," and "messy" when referring to menstruation and sex during this time. [17] Younger, single individuals with less sexual experience are more likely to avoid intercourse during menstruation and use negative language to describe it. [1] [17] In contrast, older, more experienced couples are more inclined to see sexual activity during menstruation as acceptable and enjoyable. [1]

Interconnected stigmas

Menstrual stigma is a significant element of the broader issue of endometriosis stigma. [18] [19] The negative attitudes toward menstruation play a pivotal role in perpetuating the stigma surrounding endometriosis. While much of the existing research on endometriosis stigma has primarily focused on menstrual pain and the associated stigma, it's crucial to recognize that chronic pain, in general, carries its own societal stigma. [18] Considering that endometriosis involves persistent pain during menstruation, sexual activity, and pelvic symptoms, this pain-related stigma can exacerbate the overall stigma associated with endometriosis, leading to adverse mental health outcomes. [18] Furthermore, infertility stigma is another factor contributing to the overall stigma surrounding endometriosis. [18] Many individuals with endometriosis experience infertility issues, and this aspect of the condition can lead to feelings of depression and anxiety. [18] [20]

It's important to note that stigma operates on multiple levels, including self-stigma (internalized negative attitudes), perceived stigma (how individuals believe society views them), and experienced stigma (actual instances of discrimination). These various forms of stigma have been observed to have a significant impact on the well-being of individuals living with various chronic illnesses, including endometriosis. [18]

Related Research Articles

In psychology, libido is psychic drive or energy, usually conceived of as sexual in nature, but sometimes conceived of as including other forms of desire. The term libido was originally developed by Sigmund Freud, the pioneering originator of psychoanalysis. With direct reference to Plato's Eros, the term initially referred only to specific sexual desire, later expanded to the concept of a universal psychic energy that drives all instincts and whose great reservoir is the id. The libido - in its abstract core differentiated partly according to its synthesising, partly to its analytical aspect called life- and death-drive - thus becomes the source of all natural forms of expression: the behaviour of sexuality as well as striving for social commitment, skin pleasure, food, knowledge and victory in the areas of species- and self-preservation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Menstruation</span> Shedding of the uterine lining

Menstruation is the regular discharge of blood and mucosal tissue from the inner lining of the uterus through the vagina. The menstrual cycle is characterized by the rise and fall of hormones. Menstruation is triggered by falling progesterone levels, and is a sign that pregnancy has not occurred.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endometriosis</span> Disease of the female reproductive system

Endometriosis is a disease in which cells like those in the endometrium, the layer of tissue that normally covers the inside of the uterus, grow outside the uterus. It occurs in humans and a limited number of menstruating mammals. Lesions can be found on ovaries, fallopian tubes, tissue around the uterus and ovaries (peritoneum), intestines, bladder, and diaphragm; and may also occur in other parts of the body. Symptoms include pelvic pain, heavy and painful periods, pain with bowel movements, painful urination, pain during sexual intercourse and infertility. Nearly half of those affected have chronic pelvic pain, while 70% feel pain during menstruation. Up to half of affected individuals are infertile. About 25% of individuals have no symptoms and 85% of those seen with infertility in a tertiary center have no pain. Endometriosis can have both social and psychological effects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Menstrual cycle</span> Natural changes in the human female reproductive system

The menstrual cycle is a series of natural changes in hormone production and the structures of the uterus and ovaries of the female reproductive system that makes pregnancy possible. The ovarian cycle controls the production and release of eggs and the cyclic release of estrogen and progesterone. The uterine cycle governs the preparation and maintenance of the lining of the uterus (womb) to receive an embryo. These cycles are concurrent and coordinated, normally last between 21 and 35 days, with a median length of 28 days. Menarche usually occurs around the age of 12 years; menstrual cycles continue for about 30–45 years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ovulation</span> Release of egg cells from the ovaries

Ovulation is the release of egg cells from the ovaries as part of the ovarian cycle for most vertebrates. In women, this event occurs at the end of the follicular phase, when the ovarian follicles rupture and release the secondary oocyte ovarian cells.

Menarche is the first menstrual cycle, or first menstrual bleeding, in female humans. From both social and medical perspectives, it is often considered the central event of female puberty, as it signals the possibility of fertility.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual attraction</span> Attraction on the basis of sexual desire

Sexual attraction is attraction on the basis of sexual desire or the quality of arousing such interest. Sexual attractiveness or sex appeal is an individual's ability to attract other people sexually, and is a factor in sexual selection or mate choice. The attraction can be to the physical or other qualities or traits of a person, or to such qualities in the context where they appear. The attraction may be to a person's aesthetics, movements, voice, among other things. The attraction may be enhanced by a person's body odor, sex pheromones, adornments, clothing, perfume or hair style. It can be influenced by individual genetic, psychological, or cultural factors, or to other, more amorphous qualities. Sexual attraction is also a response to another person that depends on a combination of the person possessing the traits and on the criteria of the person who is attracted.

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is a disruptive set of emotional and physical symptoms that regularly occur in the one to two weeks before the start of each menstrual period. Symptoms resolve around the time menstrual bleeding begins. Symptoms vary, though commonly include one or more physical, emotional, or behavioral symptoms, that resolve with menses. The range of symptoms is wide, and most commonly are breast tenderness, bloating, headache, mood swings, depression, anxiety, anger, and irritability. To be diagnosed as PMS, rather than a normal discomfort of the menstrual cycle, these symptoms must interfere with daily living, during two menstrual cycles of prospective recording. PMS-related symptoms are often present for about six days. An individual's pattern of symptoms may change over time. PMS does not produce symptoms during pregnancy or following menopause.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex work</span> Offer of sexual services for payment

Sex work is "the exchange of sexual services, performances, or products for material compensation. It includes activities of direct physical contact between buyers and sellers as well as indirect sexual stimulation". Sex work only refers to voluntary sexual transactions; thus, the term does not refer to human trafficking and other coerced or nonconsensual sexual transactions such as child prostitution. The transaction must take place between consenting adults of the legal age and mental capacity to consent and must take place without any methods of coercion, other than payment. The term emphasizes the labor and economic implications of this type of work. Furthermore, some prefer the use of the term because it grants more agency to the sellers of these services.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Premarital sex</span> Sexual activity before marriage

Premarital sex is sex before marriage. Premarital sex is sex between two people who are not married to each other. Premarital sex is considered a sin by a number of religions and also considered a moral issue which is taboo in many cultures. Since the Sexual Revolution of the 1960s, it has become accepted by certain liberal movements, especially in Western countries. A 2014 Pew study on global morality found that premarital sex was considered particularly unacceptable in "Muslim Majority Countries", such as Malaysia, Jordan and Pakistan, each having over 90% disapproval, while people in Western European countries were the most accepting, with Spain, Germany, and France expressing less than 10% disapproval.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Menstrual disorder</span> Medical condition affecting menstrual cycle

A menstrual disorder is characterized as any abnormal condition with regards to a woman's menstrual cycle. There are many different types of menstrual disorders that vary with signs and symptoms, including pain during menstruation, heavy bleeding, or absence of menstruation. Normal variations can occur in menstrual patterns but generally menstrual disorders can also include periods that come sooner than 21 days apart, more than 3 months apart, or last more than 10 days in duration. Variations of the menstrual cycle are mainly caused by the immaturity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) axis, and early detection and management is required in order to minimize the possibility of complications regarding future reproductive ability.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Culture and menstruation</span>

There are many cultural aspects surrounding how societies view menstruation. Different cultures view menstruation in different ways. The basis of many conduct norms and communication about menstruation in western industrial societies is the belief that menstruation should remain hidden. By contrast, in some indigenous hunter-gatherer societies, menstrual observances are viewed in a positive light, without any connotation of uncleanness. In most of India, menarche is celebrated as a rite of passage.

Adolescent sexuality is a stage of human development in which adolescents experience and explore sexual feelings. Interest in sexuality intensifies during the onset of puberty, and sexuality is often a vital aspect of teenagers' lives. Sexual interest may be expressed in a number of ways, such as flirting, kissing, masturbation, or having sex with a partner. Sexual interest among adolescents, as among adults, can vary greatly, and is influenced by cultural norms and mores, sex education, as well as comprehensive sexuality education provided, sexual orientation, and social controls such as age-of-consent laws.

Menstrual leave is a type of leave where a person may have the option to take paid or unpaid leave from their employment if they are menstruating and are unable to go to work because of this. Throughout its history, menstrual leave has been associated with controversy and discrimination against men, with very few countries enacting policies. In these countries, menstrual leave is still associated with low uptake. It is seen by some as a criticism of women's work efficiency or as sexism against men. Supporters of menstrual leave policies compare its function to that of maternity leave and view it as a promoter of gender equality.

Education is recognized as a social determinant of health. Education has also been identified as a social vaccine against contracting HIV. Research suggests a negative linear relationship between educational attainment and HIV infection rate, especially the educational attainment of women and girls.

The effects of pornography on young people are a topic of significant concern and ongoing research, as it encompasses a wide range of psychological, social, and behavioral impacts. As access to the internet has grown, so too has the exposure of young individuals to pornographic content, often before they are emotionally or cognitively prepared to process it. Adolescents turn to pornography for various reasons, including insufficient sex education, sexual arousal, as a coping mechanism, entertainment, alleviating boredom, and exploring their sexual and gender identities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Menstrual hygiene management</span> Access to menstrual hygiene products and disposal of used products

Menstrual hygiene management (MHM) or menstrual health and hygiene (MHH) refers to access to menstrual hygiene products to absorb or collect the flow of blood during menstruation, privacy to change the materials, and access to facilities to dispose of used menstrual management materials. It can also include the "broader systemic factors that link menstruation with health, well-being, gender equality, education, equity, empowerment, and rights". Menstrual hygiene management can be particularly challenging for girls and women in developing countries, where clean water and toilet facilities are often inadequate. Menstrual waste is largely ignored in schools in developing countries, despite it being a significant problem. Menstruation can be a barrier to education for many girls, as a lack of effective sanitary products restricts girls' involvement in educational and social activities.

Menstrual suppression refers to the practice of using hormonal management to stop or reduce menstrual bleeding. In contrast to surgical options for this purpose, such as hysterectomy or endometrial ablation, hormonal methods to manipulate menstruation are reversible.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Period poverty</span> Economic justice issue related to female periods

Period poverty is a term used to describe a lack of access to proper menstrual products and the education needed to use them effectively. In total, there are around 500 million women and girls that cannot manage their periods safely due to lack of menstrual products and for fear of shame. The American Medical Women's Association defines period poverty as "the inadequate access to menstrual hygiene tools and educations, including but not limited to sanitary products, washing facilities, and waste management". The lack of access to menstrual hygiene products can cause physical health problems, such as infections and reproductive tract complications, and can have negative social and psychological consequences, including missed school or work days and stigma.

Menstruation can have a notable impact on mental health, with some individuals experiencing mood disturbances and psychopathological symptoms during their menstrual cycle. Menstruation involves hormonal fluctuations and physiological changes in the body, which can affect a person's mood and psychological state. Many individuals report experiencing mood swings, irritability, anxiety, and even depression in the days leading up to their menstrual period. This cluster of symptoms is often referred to as premenstrual syndrome (PMS). For some individuals, the psychopathological symptoms associated with menstruation can be severe and debilitating, leading to a condition known as premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). PMDD is characterized by intense mood disturbances, cognitive, and somatic symptoms, which occur in a cyclical pattern linked to the menstrual cycle. In addition to PMDD, menstruation can exacerbate existing mental health conditions. The complex relationship between menstruation and mental well-being has garnered increased attention in both scientific research and public discourse.

References

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  6. ↑ Buckley, Thomas C. T.; Gottlieb, Alma (1988). "A Critical Appraisal of Theories of Menstrual Symbolism". Blood Magic: The Anthropology of Menstruation. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. pp. 1–50. ISBN   0-520-06085-7.
  7. ↑ Snowden, Robert; Christian, Barbara, eds. (1983). Patterns and perceptions of menstruation: a World Health Organization international collaborative study in Egypt, India, Indonesia, Jamaica, Mexico, Pakistan, Philippines, Republic of Korea, United Kingdom and Yugoslavia. London: Croom Helm. ISBN   978-0-312-59809-9.
  8. ↑ "A cross-cultural study of menstruation: implications for contraceptive development and use. World Health Organization Task Force on Psychosocial Research in Family Planning, Special Programme of Research, Development and Research, Training in Human Reproduction". Studies in Family Planning. 12 (1). Stud Fam Plann: 3–16. 1981. ISSN   0039-3665. PMID   7466889.
  9. ↑ Newton, Victoria Louise (2016). "'Auntie's Come to Tea': Menstrual Euphemism". Everyday Discourses of Menstruation. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 133–145. doi:10.1057/978-1-137-48775-9_8. ISBN   978-1-137-48774-2.
  10. ↑ Peranovic, Tamara; Bentley, Brenda (2016-11-16). "Men and Menstruation: A Qualitative Exploration of Beliefs, Attitudes and Experiences". Sex Roles. 77 (1–2). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 113–124. doi:10.1007/s11199-016-0701-3. ISSN   0360-0025. S2CID   151698754.
  11. ↑ Fahs, Breanne (2020). "Sex During Menstruation: Race, Sexual Identity, and Women's Accounts of Pleasure and Disgust". The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Menstruation Studies. Singapore: Springer Singapore. pp. 961–984. doi:10.1007/978-981-15-0614-7_69. ISBN   978-981-15-0613-0. PMID   33347212.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Johnston-Robledo, Ingrid; Chrisler, Joan C. (2020). "The Menstrual Mark: Menstruation as Social Stigma". The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Menstruation Studies. Singapore: Springer Singapore. pp. 181–199. doi:10.1007/978-981-15-0614-7_17. ISBN   978-981-15-0613-0. PMID   33347160.
  13. ↑ Sveen, Hanna (2016). "LavaorCode Red: A Linguistic Study of Menstrual Expressions in English and Swedish". Women's Reproductive Health. 3 (3). Informa UK Limited: 145–159. doi:10.1080/23293691.2016.1237712. ISSN   2329-3691.
  14. ↑ Fahs, Breanne (2011-01-19). "Sex during menstruation: Race, sexual identity, and women's accounts of pleasure and disgust". Feminism & Psychology. 21 (2). SAGE Publications: 155–178. doi:10.1177/0959353510396674. ISSN   0959-3535. S2CID   55169009.
  15. ↑ Kissling, Elizabeth Arveda (2006). Capitalizing on the Curse. Boulder, Colo: L. Rienner. ISBN   978-1-58826-310-0.
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  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kocas, H. Deniz; Rubin, Lisa R.; Lobel, Marci (2023). "Stigma and mental health in endometriosis". European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology: X. 19. Elsevier BV: 100228. doi: 10.1016/j.eurox.2023.100228 . ISSN   2590-1613. PMC   10465859 . PMID   37654520.
  19. ↑ Reinhardt, Anne; Eitze, Sarah (2023-11-03). "Breaking the endometriosis silence: a social norm approach to reducing menstrual stigma and policy resistance among young adults". Psychology & Health. Informa UK Limited: 1–23. doi: 10.1080/08870446.2023.2277838 . ISSN   0887-0446. PMID   37921431. S2CID   264972887.
  20. ↑ Greil, Arthur L.; Slauson-Blevins, Kathleen; McQuillan, Julia (2010). "The experience of infertility: a review of recent literature". Sociology of Health & Illness. 32 (1). Wiley: 140–162. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9566.2009.01213.x. ISSN   0141-9889. PMC   3383794 . PMID   20003036. S2CID   2083730.
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