Violence against women in Peru

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Violence against women in Peru is defined as harassment or violence propagated against those who are born women. Intimate partner violence (IPV) is the most common form of gender-based violence that occurs though it can occur concurrently with sexual and emotional violence. [1]

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Peruvian women fare differently than men, experiencing higher rates of poverty and domestic and sexual violence. [2] According to the World Health Organization, 49% of ever-partnered women (women who had been married, lived with a man, or had a regular sexual partner) in Lima and 61% in Cusco reported physical violence by a partner at some time in their life. For sexual violence by a partner these percentages were 23% in Lima and 47% in Cusco. [3]

Gender-based violence

The status and discrimination of women in Peru is complex because it varies with class, ethnicity, and the economic place of women in traditional Peruvian society. Unlike women in the U.S., women who live in Peru have often been involved in agricultural products as well as handicraft. [4] This complexity has often not been recognized by the Peruvian government.

The Peruvian Constitution of 1993 recognized a person's fundamental right to its moral, physical, and psychological integrity. [4] However, it didn't specifically expand these protections to women, nor does it have specific discrimination laws that apply to women. The following sections outline the types of gender-based violence that women experience.

Domestic violence

In 2006, Ministry of Women and Social Development (MIMDES) centers reported 25,036 cases of domestic violence in Peru. [5] The centers helped an average of 2,067 men and women per month. [5] MIMDES also operated a toll-free hot line, which handled 7,785 requests for assistance regarding family disturbances during 2006. [5]

Women's organizations noted that alcohol abuse and traditional attitudes toward women aggravated the problems of rape and sexual abuse - particularly in rural areas. [5] In November 2006, the World Health Organization reported that 69 percent of Peruvian women said they had suffered from some form of physical violence in their lives. [5]

Abuses are aggravated and perpetuated law enforcement practice, and laws that government discrimination against women. [5] MIMDES and NGOs stated that many domestic abuse cases went unreported. [5] NGO sources stated that the majority of reported cases did not result in formal charges because of fear of retaliation or because of the expense of filing a complaint. [5] The legal and physical protections offered were limited because of legal delays, ambiguities in the law, and the lack of shelters for victims. [5] According to a study done in Lima, Peru in 2007, abused women have a 1.63-fold increased risk for unintended pregnancy. Additionally, women who have experienced both physical and sexual abuse are 3.31 fold more likely to get unintentionally pregnant. [6]

Stereotypes and traditions normalize cycles of abuse. Across socioeconomic urban classes, "Mas me pegas, mas te quiero" (The more you beat me, the more I love you) is used to refer to amor serrano (high land love). This suggest two things: first, those in Peru tend to blame battered women who are poor and indigenous for the abuse they experience and second, that women enjoy violence. [7]

Migration within Peru remains a significant issue in Peru. According to Alcalde, it can produce one of two outcomes. First, it may allow a woman to leave her abuser behind but second, migration to Lima may further entrench violence because women (in a new city) have to rely on an abusive partner. [7]

Femicides

Between the years 2010 and 2017, 837 women were murdered in Peru while another 1,172 murder attempts were made during the period. [8] A 2015 study found that in about 81% of the cases of attempted femicide, no measures were taken by authorities to protect the survivor, and 24% of women who turned to the justice system for help were later murdered by the very men from whom they had sought protection. [9]

LGBTQ violence

There has been a significant amount of violence propagated against the Peruvian LGBTQ population. [10] First, according to a study done to determine the prevalence of sexual coercion among young adults in Peru, men and women who reported heterosexual coercion reported more lifetime STDs, lower age at first sex, and future homosexual behavior in men. [10]

Second, the Peruvian transgender population has also faced discrimination and violence. [11] Studies among MSM in Peru have shown that trans women show a higher proportion of HIV infection. [11] This is often linked to higher rates of drug abuse, sex work, and lack of access to education. [12] Additionally, trans women in Peru are often victims of IPV and do not receive aid from the police. [13] These factors have caused overall HIV prevalence among trans women in Lima, Peru to be 29.6%. [11]

Sexual violence

Peru demonstrates the complicity of the state government in the perpetration and perpetuation of sexual violence. However, the rationale and motives for committing sexual violence have differed across region and changed over time. [14]

Whether the state promotes sexual violence or rather just allows it to occur is difficult to ascertain because of lack of access to classified state record or testimonies. [14] However, aggregated analyses have shown a pattern in state conflict and sexual violence. Through Peru's conflict with rebels, there were two peaks in the number of sexual abuses that corresponded with particularly difficult times during the conflict. Linked with the weakening of the PCP-SL after Abimael Guzmán was captured in 1992, the number of sexual violence incidents in Peru decreased significantly. [14] This correlation suggests that the state used sexual violence as a tool of war. However, though it was widespread, sexual violence in Peru tended to be more selected and perpetrated with deliberation - about 71% of cases involved a single victims. Rather than engaging in gang-rape, victims were often picked if they were identified as opposition to the state. [14]

Past sexual violence against women during this period of internal conflict, the shocks of the violence had long-term health implications for women. [15] Based on a study done by Grimard et al., the shock of the violence had an adverse effect on pregnant women, often stunting the growth of their children. [15] This was true even when controlling for socioeconomic conditions. [15]

In 2001, Interim President Valentín Paniagua chartered a twelve-person commission to investigate human rights violations. The commission took about two years to submit its final report. The report found that rape was the most frequent for of abuse, constituting about 48% in Peru. Military officials were the most frequent offender (48% in Peru). Additionally, sexual violence was most often committed while victims were detained (52% in Peru). [14]

Finally, sexual violence in Peru was and often still is perpetuated towards its indigenous population. According to the National Statistics Institute, 20% of Peru's population is indigenous. These communities are politically and economically disadvantaged in comparison with the national population. The state responded with disproportionate violence and repression. [14]

Street harassment

On par with other Latin American countries, street harassment is a prevalent problem in Peru. As a result, citizens created the Paremos el Acoso Callejero (PAC) initiative in 2012, which translates to 'Let's stop street harassment'. The purpose of this initiative was to analyze the structures of everyday violence towards women in Peru, such as catcalling. Additionally, this initiative was unique because it started on Facebook, Twitter, and DATEA, a platform that gives women the opportunity to geo-reference their experiences. Past being broadly successful with women, the PAC initiative has partnered with the Peruvian parliament spurring the only anti-street harassment law in Latin America. [16]

Prevention programs

Violence against women in Peru - Yes.jpg
Say "yes" to respecting women
Violence against women in Peru - No.jpg
Say "no" to violence against women
Violence against women in Peru - arrest.jpg
The result of violence is arrest.
Source: Government of Peru

The Peruvian government and population has recognized gender-based as a prevalent issue. Therefore, it has instituted a variety of programs to address violence directed towards women. [5]

Law

The law prohibits domestic violence, and penalties range from one month to six years in prison. [5] The law gives judges and prosecutors the authority to prevent the convicted spouse or parent from returning to the family's home and authorizes the victim's relatives and unrelated persons living in the home to file complaints of domestic violence. [5]

The law also allows health professionals to document injuries. [5] The law requires police investigation of domestic violence to take place within five days and obliges authorities to extend protection to women and children who are victims of domestic violence. [5]

Specific laws that address intimate partner violence (IPL) in Peru include the Family Violence Law (FVL) in 1993. [1] Several non-partisan organizations in Peru have applauded this law to address domestic violence, but say that there should be other factors included. For example, non-married couples are not included under the law. [1] Additionally, the law does not cover victims of sexual violence and victims have to undergo a long, bureaucratic processes to press charges. Finally, the other flaw is that the laws require couples to attempt reconciliation even with proof of abuse. [1]

Attempting to use Western-informed laws to address gender-based violence in Peru often fail because they don't take into account unique cultural or political factors that affect behavior. [17] Studies contend that Peru should attempt to identify its own risk factors. [17]

NGOs

MIMDES runs the Women's Emergency Program, which seeks to address the legal, psychological, and medical problems facing victims of domestic violence. [5] As of 2006 MIMDES operated 39 centers, bringing together police, prosecutors, counselors, and public welfare agents together to help victims of domestic abuse. [5] MIMDES continues efforts to sensitize government employees and the citizenry to domestic violence. [5] In 2006, the Ombudsman's Office continued to complain that police officers reacted indifferently to charges of domestic violence, despite legal requirements to investigate the complaints. [5] Also in 2006, female community leaders, former members of congress, and local media outlets launched awareness campaigns to provide citizens with more information about domestic violence. [5]

Second, the Women's Information and Documentation Centre's main objective is to contribute to the equality between the genders and to facilitate changes in Peruvian society. Through mostly cultural means, it retains bibliographical information. [18]

Third, there have been several groups that have engaged in advocacy and consciousness-raising regarding violence against the Peruvian LGBTQ population. For example, GALF, a Peruvian feminist lesbian group, organized to spur change against lesbophobia. GALF built partnerships within the gay community as well as with heterosexual feminist groups and services. [19]

See also

Related Research Articles

Abuse is the improper usage or treatment of a thing, often to unfairly or improperly gain benefit. Abuse can come in many forms, such as: physical or verbal maltreatment, injury, assault, violation, rape, unjust practices, crimes, or other types of aggression. To these descriptions, one can also add the Kantian notion of the wrongness of using another human being as means to an end rather than as ends in themselves. Some sources describe abuse as "socially constructed", which means there may be more or less recognition of the suffering of a victim at different times and societies.

Psychological abuse, often called emotional abuse, is a form of abuse characterized by a person subjecting or exposing another person to a behavior that may result in psychological trauma, including anxiety, chronic depression, or post-traumatic stress disorder.

Sexual violence is any sexual act or attempt to obtain a sexual act by violence or coercion, act to traffic a person, regardless of the relationship to the victim. It occurs in times of peace and armed conflict situations, is widespread, and is considered to be one of the most traumatic, pervasive, and most common human rights violations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Violence against women</span> Violent acts committed primarily against women and girls

Violence against women (VAW), also known as gender-based violence and sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), are violent acts primarily or exclusively committed by men or boys against women or girls. Such violence is often considered a form of hate crime, committed against women or girls specifically because they are female, and can take many forms.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is domestic violence by a current or former spouse or partner in an intimate relationship against the other spouse or partner. IPV can take a number of forms, including physical, verbal, emotional, economic and sexual abuse. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines IPV as "any behavior within an intimate relationship that causes physical, psychological or sexual harm to those in the relationship, including acts of physical aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse and controlling behaviors." IPV is sometimes referred to simply as battery, or as spouse or partner abuse.

Intimate partner sexual violence (IPSV) deals with sexual violence within the context of domestic violence. Intimate partner sexual violence is defined by any unwanted sexual contact or activity by an intimate partner in order to control an individual through fear, threats, or violence. Women are the primary victims of this type of violence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Factors associated with being a victim of sexual violence</span>

One of the most common forms of sexual violence around the world is that which is perpetrated by an intimate partner, leading to the conclusion that one of the most important risk factors for people in terms of their vulnerability to sexual assault is being married or cohabiting with a partner. Other factors influencing the risk of sexual violence include:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Estimates of sexual violence</span>

Surveys of victims of crime have been undertaken in many cities and countries, using a common methodology to aid comparability, and have generally included questions on sexual violence. The United Nations has conducted extensive surveys to determine the level of sexual violence in different societies. According to these studies, the percentage of women reporting having been a victim of sexual assault ranges from less than 2% in places such as La Paz, Bolivia (1.4%), Gaborone, Botswana (0.8%), Beijing, China (1.6%), and Manila, Philippines (0.3%), to 5% or more in Istanbul, Turkey (6.0%), Buenos Aires, Argentina (5.8%), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (8.0%), and Bogota, Colombia (5.0%).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Initiatives to prevent sexual violence</span>

As sexual violence affects all parts of society, the responses that arise to combat it are comprehensive, taking place on the individual, administrative, legal, and social levels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic violence</span> Abuse of members of the same household

Domestic violence is violence or other abuse that occurs in a domestic setting, such as in a marriage or cohabitation. Domestic violence is often used as a synonym for intimate partner violence, which is committed by one of the people in an intimate relationship against the other person, and can take place in relationships or between former spouses or partners. In its broadest sense, domestic violence also involves violence against children, parents, or the elderly. It can assume multiple forms, including physical, verbal, emotional, economic, religious, reproductive, or sexual abuse. It can range from subtle, coercive forms to marital rape and other violent physical abuse, such as choking, beating, female genital mutilation, and acid throwing that may result in disfigurement or death, and includes the use of technology to harass, control, monitor, stalk or hack. Domestic murder includes stoning, bride burning, honor killing, and dowry death, which sometimes involves non-cohabitating family members. In 2015, the United Kingdom's Home Office widened the definition of domestic violence to include coercive control.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic violence in the United States</span>

Domestic violence in United States is a form of violence that occurs within a domestic relationship. Although domestic violence often occurs between partners in the context of an intimate relationship, it may also describe other household violence, such as violence against a child, by a child against a parent or violence between siblings in the same household. It is recognized as an important social problem by governmental and non-governmental agencies, and various Violence Against Women Acts have been passed by the US Congress in an attempt to stem this tide.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to domestic violence:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic violence in India</span>

Domestic violence in India includes any form of violence suffered by a person from a biological relative but typically is the violence suffered by a woman by male members of her family or relatives. Although Men also suffer Domestic violence, the law under IPC 498A specifically protects only women. Specifically only a woman can file a case of domestic violence. According to a National Family and Health Survey in 2005, total lifetime prevalence of domestic violence was 33.5% and 8.5% for sexual violence among women aged 15–49. A 2014 study in The Lancet reports that although the reported sexual violence rate in India is among the lowest in the world, the large population of India means that the violence affects 27.5 million women over their lifetimes. However, an opinion survey among experts carried out by the Thomson Reuters Foundation ranked India as the most dangerous country in the world for women.

Domestic violence is prominent in Nigeria as in other parts of Africa. There is a deep cultural belief in Nigeria that it is socially acceptable to hit a woman as a disciplinary measure. Cases of Domestic violence are on the high and show no signs of reduction in Nigeria, regardless of the age, tribe, religion or even social status. The CLEEN Foundation reports 1 in every 3 respondents admitting to being a victim of domestic violence. The survey also found a nationwide increase in domestic violence in the past 3 years from 21% in 2011 to 30% in 2013. A CLEEN Foundation's 2012 National Crime and Safety Survey demonstrated that 31% of the national sample confessed to being victims of domestic violence.

Domestic violence in Kenya constitutes any harmful behavior against a family member or partner, including rape, assault, physical abuse, and forced prostitution. Domestic violence in Kenya reflects worldwide statistics in that women are the overwhelming majority of victims. Over 40% of married women in Kenya have reported being victims of either domestic violence or sexual abuse. Worldwide, over 30% of "ever-partnered women" aged 15 and older have experienced physical or sexual partner violence. The distinct factors and causes of this high percentage have often not been studied due to lack of data.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual violence in Finland</span> Overview of sexual violence in Finland

Sexual violence is defined as the use of force or manipulation to get someone to engage in unwanted sexual activity without his or her consent. Such violence takes place in both heterosexual and homosexual relationships, as well as outside intimate relationships. All sexual offenses violate the basic right of sexual self-determination. In Finland, sexual violence and taking advantage of a person is always a crime, even if the assaulter was the victim's spouse, relative or their friend. Sexual offences include but are not limited to rape, forcing someone into a sexual act and taking sexual advantage of a person. The victims of sexual violence are predominantly women, but 26 percent of Finnish men have experienced sexual harassment since their 15th birthday.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic violence in same-sex relationships</span>

Domestic violence in same-sex relationships is a pattern of violence or abuse that occurs within same-sex relationships. Domestic violence is an issue that affects people of any sexuality, but there are issues that affect victims of same-sex domestic violence specifically. These issues include homophobia, internalized homophobia, HIV and AIDS stigma, STD risk and other health issues, lack of legal support, and the violence they face being considered less serious than heterosexual domestic violence. Moreover, the issue of domestic violence in same-sex relationships has not been studied as comprehensively as domestic violence in heterosexual relationships. However, there are legal changes being made to help victims of domestic violence in same-sex relationships, as well as organizations that cater specifically to victims of domestic violence in same-sex relationships.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic violence in South Korea</span> Domestic violence directed against women in South Korea

Domestic violence in South Korea is the mental, physical, verbal or sexual abuses or crimes of violence committed towards a victim in a domestic setting of marital relations and cohabitation. Domestic violence describes violence towards a domestic partner, towards children and between siblings. According to the Domestic Violence Survey of South Korea in 2010, elder abuse was estimated to be 10%, physical abuse accounted for 2.2%, emotional abuse 9%, economic abuse 1.2%, and neglect 2.5%. Marital violence has been the most prevalent form of family violence in South Korea. One out of six couples in South Korea had more than one episode of physical violence from their spouse.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Zambia</span> Overview of the status of women in Zambia

The status of women in Zambia has improved in recent years. Among other things, the maternal mortality rate has dropped and the National Assembly of Zambia has enacted multiple policies aimed at decreasing violence against women. However, progress is still needed. Most women have limited access to reproductive healthcare, and the total number of women infected with HIV in the country continues to rise. Moreover, violence against women in Zambia remains common. Child marriage rates in Zambia are some of the highest in the world, and women continue to experience high levels of physical and sexual violence.

Violence against women in Uganda is an issue that negatively affects various aspects of women's lives. COVID-19 has worsened the current condition for women facing domestic violence. Perceived changing social standards and cultural norms indicate power dynamics which is a primary cause of violence carried out against women. Refugee women in Uganda are uniquely subjugated as they have the least access to gaining social or monetary capital. However, there has been recent legislation aimed at improving the quality of life for Ugandan women and refugee women in Uganda.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Gomez-Beloz, Alfredo, Michelle A. Williams, Sixto E. Sanchez, and Nelly Lam. "Intimate partner violence and risk for depression among postpartum women in Lima, Peru." Violence and victims 24, no. 3 (2009): 380-398.
  2. ↑ Akresh and DeWalque, 2010 Armed conflict and schooling: Evidence from the 1994 Rwandan genocide. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper #4606.
  3. ↑ "WHO Multi-Country Study on Women's Health and Domestic Violence against Women." 2005. Accessed March 22, 2017. http://www.who.int/gender/violence/who_multicountry_study/fact_sheets/Peru2.pdf .
  4. 1 2 Orihuela, Sandra, and Abigail Montjoy. "The Evolution of Latin America's Sexual Harassment Law: A Look at Mini Skirts and Multinationals in Peru." Cal. W. Int'l LJ 30 (1999): 323.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Report on Human Rights Practices 2006: Peru. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (March 6, 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  6. ↑ Cripe, Swee May, Sixto E. Sanchez, Maria Teresa Perales, Nally Lam, Pedro Garcia, and Michelle A. Williams. "Association of intimate partner physical and sexual violence with unintended pregnancy among pregnant women in Peru." International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics 100, no. 2 (2008): 104-108.
  7. 1 2 Alcalde, M. Cristina. "Migration and Class as Constraints in Battered Women's Attempts to Escape Violence in Lima Peru." Latin American Perspectives 33, no. 6 (2006): 147-164.
  8. ↑ "#NiUnaMenos: miles de mujeres marcharán para rechazar la violencia". Perú.com (in Spanish). 25 November 2017. Retrieved 26 November 2017.
  9. ↑ "Tras la presentación del Informe №173: Defensoría del Pueblo pide sanciones más drásticas y efectivas frente al delito de feminicidio. Nota de Prensa №268/OCII/DP/2015" (PDF) (in Spanish). December 10, 2015. Retrieved August 14, 2016.
  10. 1 2 Caceres, Carlos F., Barbara Vanoss Marin, and Esther Sid Hudes. "Sexual coercion among youth and young adults in Lima, Peru." Journal of adolescent health 27, no. 5 (2000): 361-367.
  11. 1 2 3 Silva-Santisteban, Alfonso, H. Fisher Raymond, Ximena Salazar, Jana Villayzan, Segundo Leon, Willi McFarland, and Carlos F. Caceres. "Understanding the HIV/AIDS epidemic in transgender women of Lima, Peru: results from a sero-epidemiologic study using respondent driven sampling." AIDS and Behavior 16, no. 4 (2012): 872-881.
  12. ↑ Melendez RM, Pinto R. ‘It’s really a hard life’: love, gender and HIV risk among male-to-female transgender persons. Cult Health Sex. 2007;9(3):233–45.
  13. ↑ Silva-Santisteban A, Salazar X. Informe final de mapeo y encuesta sociodemogra´fica del trabajo sexual en cuatro ciudades del Peru´. Lima: UNFPA; 2009
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Leiby, Michele L. "Wartime sexual violence in Guatemala and Peru." International Studies Quarterly 53, no. 2 (2009): 445-468.
  15. 1 2 3 Grimard, Franque, and Sonia Laszlo. "Long-term effects of civil conflict on women’s health outcomes in Peru." World Development 54 (2014): 139-155.
  16. ↑ Vallejo, Elizabeth. "The Struggle Against Street Harassment in perú: New Media, Youth Feminism and International Political Advocacy." In Third ISA Forum of Sociology (July 10–14, 2016). Isaconf, 2016.
  17. 1 2 Flake, D. F. (2005). Individual, family, and community risk markers for domestic violence in Peru. Violence Against Women, 11 (3), 353–373. 
  18. ↑ "Peru Women's Organisations." Peru Women's Organisations. Accessed March 23, 2017. http://www.distel.ca/womlist/countries/peru.html .
  19. ↑ Jitsuya, Nelly, and Rebeca Sevilla. "All the bridges that we build: Lesbophobia and sexism within the women's and gay movements in Peru." Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services 16, no. 1 (2004): 1-28.
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