Restraining order

Last updated
A restraining order issued by the Justice Court of Las Vegas. Restraining Order.jpg
A restraining order issued by the Justice Court of Las Vegas.

A restraining order or protective order [a] is an order used by a court to protect a person in a situation often involving alleged domestic violence, child abuse and neglect, assault, harassment, stalking, or sexual assault.

Contents

Restraining and personal protection order laws vary from one jurisdiction to another but all establish who can file for an order, what protection or relief a person can get from such an order, and how the order will be enforced. The court will order the adverse party to refrain from certain actions or require compliance with certain provisions. Failure to comply is a violation of the order which can result in the arrest and prosecution of the offender. Violations in some jurisdictions may also constitute criminal or civil contempt of court.

Restraining order provisions

All protective order statutes permit the court to instruct an alleged abuser to stay a certain distance away from someone, such as their home, workplace or school ("stay away" provisions), and not to contact them. Alleged victims generally may also request the court to order that all contact, whether it be by telephone, notes, mail, fax, email, text, social media, or delivery of flowers, gifts, or drinks be prohibited ("no contact" provisions). Courts can also instruct an alleged abuser to not hurt or threaten someone ("cease abuse" provisions) known as no violent contact orders. The no-violent contact order statutes from the court may allow the alleged abuser to maintain their current living situation with the alleged victim or have contact with them. [3]

Some states also allow the court to order the alleged abuser to pay temporary support or continue to make mortgage payments on a home owned by both people ("support" provisions), to award sole use of a home or car owned by both people ("exclusive use" provisions), or to pay for medical costs or property damage caused by the alleged abuser ("restitution" provisions). Some courts might also be able to instruct the alleged abuser to turn over any firearms and ammunition they have ("relinquish firearms" provisions), attend a batterers' treatment program, appear for regular drug tests, or start alcohol or drug abuse counselling. Its issuance is sometimes called a "de facto divorce". [4]

Burden of proof and misuse

The standard of proof required to obtain a restraining order can vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but it is generally lower than the standard of beyond a reasonable doubt required in criminal trials. Many US states—such as Oregon and Pennsylvania—use a standard of preponderance of the evidence. Other states use different standards, such as Wisconsin, which require that restraining orders be based on "reasonable grounds". [5]

Judges have some incentives to err on the side of granting restraining orders. If a judge grants a restraining order against someone who might not warrant it, typically the only repercussion is that the defendant might appeal the order. If, however, the judge denies a restraining order and the plaintiff is killed or injured, poor publicity and an enraged community reaction may harm the jurist's career. [4] [6]

Colorado's statute inverts the standard court procedures and due process, providing that after the court issues an ex parte order, the defendant must "appear before the court at a specific time and date and . . . show cause, if any, why said temporary civil protection order should not be made permanent". [7] That is, Colorado courts place the burden of proof on the accused to establish his or her innocence, rather than requiring the accuser to prove his or her case. Hawaii similarly requires the defendant to prove his or her own innocence. [8]

The low burden of proof for restraining orders has led to some high-profile cases involving stalkers of celebrities obtaining restraining orders against their targets. For example, in 2005 a New Mexico judge issued a restraining order against New York City-based TV host David Letterman after a woman made claims of abuse and harassment, including allegations that Letterman had spoken to her via coded messages on his TV show. The judge later admitted that he granted the restraining order not on the merits of the case, but because the petitioner had completely filled out the required paperwork. [9]

Some attorneys have criticized the use of restraining orders on the theory that parties to a divorce may file such orders to gain tactical advantages, rather than out of a legitimate fear of harm. Liz Mandarano, an attorney who specializes in family and matrimonial law, speculates that divorce attorneys are incentivized to push for restraining orders because such orders force all communications to go through the parties' lawyers and may prolong the legal struggle. [9] Some attorneys offer to have restraining orders dropped in exchange for financial concessions in such proceedings.[ citation needed ]

Effectiveness

Experts disagree on whether restraining orders are effective in preventing further harassment. A 2010 analysis published in the Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law reviewed 15 U.S. studies of restraining order effectiveness, and concluded that restraining orders "can serve a useful role in threat management". [10] However, a 2002 analysis of 32 U.S. studies found that restraining orders are violated an average of 40 percent of the time and are perceived as being "followed by worse events" almost 21 percent of the time, and concluded that "evidence of [restraining orders'] relative efficacy is lacking", and that they may pose some degree of risk. [11] Other studies have found that restraining orders offer little or no assurance against future interpersonal violence. [12] [13] [14] A large America-wide telephone survey conducted in 1998 found that, of stalking victims who obtained a restraining order, only 30% of these orders kept the stalker away.[ citation needed ]

Threat management experts are often suspicious of restraining orders, believing they may escalate or enrage stalkers. In his 1997 book The Gift of Fear, American security specialist Gavin de Becker characterized restraining orders as "homework assignments police give to women to prove they're really committed to getting away from their pursuers," and said they "clearly serve police and prosecutors," but "they do not always serve victims". The Independent Women’s Forum decries them as "lulling women into a false sense of security," and in its Family Legal Guide, the American Bar Association warns “a court order might even add to the alleged offender's rage". [15]

Castle Rock v. Gonzales , 545 U.S. 748 (2005), is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled, 7–2, that a town and its police department could not be sued under 42 U.S.C.   § 1983 for failing to enforce a restraining order, which had led to the murder of a woman's three children by her estranged husband.

Both parties must be informed of the restraining order for it to go into effect. Law enforcement may have trouble serving the order, making the petition unproductive. A study found that some counties had 91 percent of restraining orders non-served. [3] A temporary order of restraint ("ex parte" order) is in effect for two weeks before a court settles the terms of the order, but it is still not in effect until the alleged abuser is served.[ citation needed ]

Gender of parties

Restraining orders most commonly protect a woman against a male alleged abuser. A California study found that 72% of restraining orders active in the state at the time protected a woman against an alleged male abuser. [16] The Wisconsin Coalition Against Domestic Violence uses female pronouns to refer to petitioners and male pronouns to refer to abusers due to the fact that most petitioners are women and most alleged abusers are men. [17]

Jurisdictions

United Kingdom

England

In English law, a non-molestation order may be granted under Section 42 of the Family Law Act 1996. [18] Non-molestation orders are a type of injunction used to protect an individual from intimidation or harassment. Breaching a non-molestation order is a criminal offence. [19] Under the Domestic Violence Crime and Victims Act 2004, cohabiting same-sex couples are able to seek a non-molestation order. [20] Non-molestation orders sought for protection from domestic violence qualify for legal aid regardless of the applicant's income. [21]

United States

Federal law requires that all states give "full faith and credit" to every portion of a restraining order issued by any state provided that certain minimum due process requirements are met. [22] Thus a state with very lax standards for issuing a restraining order may enter such a protective order, and every state and federal territory would be required to adhere to every provision. [6] Federal law prohibits any person who is subject to a state protective order from possessing a firearm, [23] provided that the protected party is an intimate partner, meaning a spouse or former spouse, or a person with whom the protected party has had a child. [24] Violating a restraining order is a deportable offense.[ citation needed ]

Some states (e.g. Mississippi [25] ) may also call a restraining order a peace bond and are similar to ASBO laws in the UK. Minnesota law provides for an order for protection (OFP) and a harassment restraining order (HRO). [26]

Many jurisdictions offer a simplified process for filing a civil complaint for unrepresented litigants. For example, in North Carolina, pro se litigants can file a 50B (also called a DVPO, for domestic violence protective order) complaint with the clerk of court. [27]

Types

In the United States, every state has some form of domestic violence restraining order law, [28] and many states also have specific restraining order laws for stalking [29] and sexual assault. [30] In the US, each state has its own restraining order laws, but they tend to be divided into five main types. Not every state will have every type of restraining order on the books.

A domestic violence restraining order generally protects only parties deemed to be in some form of "domestic" relationship which may, depending on the statute, include a family, household, intimate, or sexual relationship.

A sexual assault restraining order specifically protects a victim of sexual assault regardless of what relationship may or may not exist between petitioner and respondent. If the state has no sexual assault restraining order statute, the victim may still qualify for a domestic violence restraining order if the sexual assault occurred in the context of a domestic relationship or if the statute is written sufficiently broad. In such cases, sexual assault survivors can sometimes qualify for domestic violence restraining orders because any act of sexual intercourse between petitioner and respondent, even during rape, legally establishes the required sexually intimate relationship.

Harassment and stalking restraining orders also generally do not require any specific relationship to exist or not exist between the parties, but also may not be available in all states. These types of restraining orders also generally require at least two instances of, respectively, harassment or stalking to qualify. [31]

In many cases, one statute may cover more than one type of restraining order. For example, what is called a harassment restraining order in Wisconsin also specifically includes cases of sexual assault and stalking. [32]

In California, domestic violence restraining orders are issued under Family Code Section 6200, et. seq. [33] The California courts have designed domestic violence restraining orders to be accessible to the public so as not to require a lawyer to obtain or defend against one.

Finally, an extreme risk restraining order is a form of US restraining order, currently used in 13 states. Other forms of restraining order will sometimes order firearms restrictions as a part of a larger injunction intended to protect a specific individual. But with an extreme risk restraining order, the sole focus is on the firearms restrictions. It is sought when household members or police believe a particular individual is at risk to use firearms to harm themselves or others. If a court agrees, the person can have their firearms taken away. This type of restraining order is not intended to protect a specific individual but rather the community at large from someone believed to be a danger for gun violence. It has been cited as a possible tool to help prevent mass shootings such as the Orlando nightclub shooting. [34]

Czech Republic

A domestic violence restraining order in the Czech Republic may be issued by a police officer or by a court.

Any police officer has authority under the Police Act to issue restraining order prohibiting a person from entering common dwelling and nearby areas and from contacting the threatened person. Such restraining order is valid for a period of ten days. In case that the threatened person files for court restraining order, the police restraining order remains valid until court renders decision. [35]

A court may issue a domestic violence or stalking restraining order based on application of threatened person for a period of up to one month. This may later be extended if the threatened person files for extension. Extension is possible for necessary period of time, but no more than six months in total. [35]

Breaching of restraining order is a separate crime punishable by up to two years of imprisonment. [35]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ There are other names such as "criminal orders of protection" [1] and "criminal protective orders". [2]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Injunction</span> Legal order to stop doing something

An injunction is an equitable remedy in the form of a special court order that compels a party to do or refrain from specific acts. "When a court employs the extraordinary remedy of injunction, it directs the conduct of a party, and does so with the backing of its full coercive powers." A party that fails to comply with an injunction faces criminal or civil penalties, including possible monetary sanctions and even imprisonment. They can also be charged with contempt of court.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Court order</span> Official proclamation by a judge or panel of judges

A court order is an official proclamation by a judge that defines the legal relationships between the parties to a hearing, a trial, an appeal or other court proceedings. Such ruling requires or authorizes the carrying out of certain steps by one or more parties to a case. A court order must be signed by a judge; some jurisdictions may also require it to be notarized. A court order governs each case throughout its entirety. If an individual violates the court order, the judge may hold that person in contempt.

The Domestic Violence Offender Gun Ban, often called the "Lautenberg Amendment", is an amendment to the Omnibus Consolidated Appropriations Act of 1997, enacted by the 104th United States Congress in 1996, which bans access to firearms for life by people convicted of crimes of domestic violence. The act is often referred to as "the Lautenberg Amendment" after its sponsor, Senator Frank Lautenberg (D-NJ). Lautenberg proposed the amendment after a decision from the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, involving underenforcement of domestic violence laws brought under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. President Bill Clinton signed the law as part of the Omnibus Appropriations Act of 1997.

Castle Rock v. Gonzales, 545 U.S. 748 (2005), is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled, 7–2, that a town and its police department could not be sued under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 for failing to enforce a restraining order, which had led to the murders of a woman's three children by her estranged husband. This decision affirmed the controversial principle that the police have no duty to protect the public, a similar ruling as the one in DeShaney v. Winnebago County. The decision has since become infamous and condemned by several human rights groups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Violence Against Women Act</span> United States crime legislation

The Violence Against Women Act of 1994 (VAWA) is a United States federal law signed by President Bill Clinton on September 13, 1994. The Act provided $1.6 billion toward investigation and the prosecution of violent crimes against women, imposed automatic and mandatory restitution on those convicted, and allowed civil redress when prosecutors chose not to prosecute cases. The Act also established the Office on Violence Against Women within the U.S. Department of Justice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004</span> United Kingdom legislation

The Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It is concerned with criminal justice and concentrates upon legal protection and assistance to victims of crime, particularly domestic violence. It also expands the provision for trials without a jury, brings in new rules for trials for causing the death of a child or vulnerable adult, and permits bailiffs to use force to enter homes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Network to End Domestic Violence</span> Non-profit organization in the USA

The National Network to End Domestic Violence(NNEDV) is a 501(c)(3) not-for-profit organization founded in 1990, based in the District of Columbia. It is a network of state and territorial domestic violence coalitions, representing over 2,000 member organizations throughout the US. The National Network to End Domestic Violence works to address the many aspects of domestic violence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protection from Harassment Act 1997</span> Law of the United Kingdom

The Protection from Harassment Act 1997 is an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. On introducing the Bill's second reading in the House of Lords, the Lord Chancellor, Lord Mackay of Clashfern, said, "The aim of this Bill is to protect the victims of harassment. It will protect all such victims whatever the source of the harassment—so-called stalking behaviour, racial harassment, or anti-social behaviour by neighbours." Home Office guidance on the Act says "The legislation was always intended to tackle stalking, but the offences were drafted to tackle any form of persistent conduct which causes another person alarm or distress."

Cyberstalking is the use of the Internet or other electronic means to stalk or harass an individual, group, or organization. It may include false accusations, defamation, slander and libel. It may also include monitoring, identity theft, threats, vandalism, solicitation for sex, doxing, or blackmail. These unwanted behaviors are perpetrated online and cause intrusion into an individual's digital life as well as negatively impact a victim's mental and emotional well-being, as well as their sense of safety and security online.

Evidence-based prosecution refers to a collection of techniques utilized by prosecutors in domestic violence cases to convict abusers without the cooperation of an alleged victim. It is widely practiced within the American legal system by specialized prosecutors and state's attorneys and relies on utilizing a variety of evidence to prove the guilt of an abuser with limited or adverse participation by the abuser's victim, or even no participation at all.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Civil Harassment Restraining Order</span> Legal order in California

A Civil Harassment Restraining Order (CHO) is a form of restraining order or order of protection used in the state of California. It is a legal intervention in which a person who is deemed to be harassing, threatening or stalking another person is ordered to stop, with the goal of reducing risk of further threat or harm to the person being harassed. Some restraining orders are limited to domestic partners, but the CHO is not. It is frequently used with the purpose of preventing harassment by co-workers, neighbours, strangers and acquaintances.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pennsylvania Coalition to Advance Respect</span> US nonprofit organization

The Pennsylvania Coalition to Advance Respect (PCAR), known as the Pennsylvania Coalition Against Rape from 1975 to 2023, is an organization that opposes rape and sexual violence in Pennsylvania and the United States, and advocates for victims of sexual violence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic violence in the United States</span>

Domestic violence is a form of violence that occurs within a domestic relationship. Although domestic violence often occurs between partners in the context of an intimate relationship, it may also describe other household violence, such as violence against a child, by a child against a parent or violence between siblings in the same household. In the United States, it is recognized as an important social problem by governmental and non-governmental agencies, and various Violence Against Women Acts have been passed by the US Congress in an attempt to stem this tide.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to domestic violence:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic Abuse Restraining Order</span>

A Domestic Abuse Restraining Order (DARO) is a form of restraining order or order of protection used under the domestic abuse laws of the state of Wisconsin, USA, and enforceable throughout the US under invocation of the Full Faith and Credit Clause in the Violence Against Women Act. It is a legal intervention in which one person who is deemed to be hurting, threatening or stalking another person is ordered to stop — and often cease all direct and indirect contact — with the goal of reducing risk of further threat or harm to the petitioner. The petitioner and respondent will generally be in certain specific relationships such as a spousal or sexual relationship. If the petitioner is in an unwanted stalking relationship with the respondent, however, a closely related form of injunction, a Harassment Restraining Order (HRO) may be more appropriate.

After a sexual assault or rape, victims are often subjected to scrutiny and, in some cases, mistreatment. Victims undergo medical examinations and are interviewed by police. If there is a criminal trial, victims suffer a loss of privacy, and their credibility may be challenged. Victims may also become the target of slut-shaming, abuse, social stigmatization, sexual slurs and cyberbullying. These factors, contributing to a rape culture, are among some of the reasons that may contribute up to 80% of all rapes going unreported in the U.S, according to a 2016 study done by the U.S. Department of Justice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red flag law</span> American gun control law that permits temporary seizure of firearms

In the United States, a red flag law is a gun law that permits a state court to order the temporary seizure of firearms from a person who they believe may present a danger. A judge makes the determination to issue the order based on statements and actions made by the gun owner in question. Refusal to comply with the order is punishable as a criminal offense. After a set time, the guns are returned to the person from whom they were seized unless another court hearing extends the period of confiscation.

The boyfriend loophole is a gap in American gun legislation that allows physically abusive ex-romantic partners and stalkers with previous convictions or restraining orders to access guns. While individuals who have been convicted of, or are under a restraining order for, domestic violence are prohibited from owning a firearm, the prohibition only applies if the victim was the perpetrator's spouse or cohabitant, or if the perpetrator had a child with the victim.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic Abuse Act 2021</span> United Kingdom legislation

The Domestic Abuse Act 2021 is an act of Parliament of the United Kingdom. The act included provisions necessary to ratify the Istanbul Convention. Much of the content within the act is still much debated. The act is intended to help tackle domestic violence in the United Kingdom, which has been referred to as a "silent epidemic." There have been numerous suggestions to address the act's protection of victims of domestic violence. The United Kingdom has also received criticism for taking eight years to carry out commitments following the Istanbul Convention.

United States v. Rahimi, 602 U.S. ___ (2024), was a United States Supreme Court case regarding the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution and whether it empowers the government to prohibit firearm possession by a person with a civil domestic violence restraining order in the absence of a corresponding criminal domestic violence conviction or charge.

References

Davis, J.A. (2001, August). Stalking Crimes and Victim Protection, CRC Press, 568 pages.

  1. ↑ Sullivan, Tami P.; Weiss, Nicole H.; Woerner, Jacqueline; Wyatt, Janan; Carey, Camille (28 October 2019). "Criminal Orders of Protection for Domestic Violence: Associated Revictimization, Mental Health, and Well-being Among Victims". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 36 (21–22): 10198–10219. doi:10.1177/0886260519883865. PMID   31658852. S2CID   204954937.
  2. ↑ DeVito, Frank (2018–2019). "Criminal Protective Orders in Connecticut: The Problem of a Hidden Right". Quinnipiac Law Review (QLR). 37: 343.
  3. 1 2 Partner stalking : how women respond, cope, and survive. Logan, TK. New York: Springer Pub. 2006. ISBN   9780826137579. OCLC   228168873.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  4. 1 2 Heleniak, David N. (2010). "Erring on the Side of Hidden Harm: The Granting of Domestic Violence Restraining Orders" (PDF). Partner Abuse. 1 (2). Springer: 220–229. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.694.8750 . doi:10.1891/1946-6560.1.2.220. S2CID   71884596.
  5. ↑ University of Baltimore School of Law Family Law Clinic (June 2009). "Standards of Proof for Domestic Violence Civil Protection Orders (CPOs) By State" (PDF). American Bar Association Commission on Domestic Violence.
  6. 1 2 Slocum, Peter (2010). "Biting the D.V. Bullet: Are Domestic-Restraining Orders Trampling on Second Amendment Rights?". Seton Hall Law Review. 40 (2).
  7. ↑ Colorado Revised Statutes Annotated § 13-14-102(5)
  8. ↑ Hawaii Revised Statutes Annotated § 586-5(b)
  9. 1 2 Mandarano, Liz (13 April 2011). "The Worst Thing A Woman Can Do In Divorce Proceedings - The Abuse Of Orders of Protection". Huffington Post.
  10. ↑ Benitez, Christopher T.; McNiel, Dale E.; Binder, Renée L. (2010-09-01). "Do Protection Orders Protect?". Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online. 38 (3): 376–385. ISSN   1093-6793. PMID   20852224.
  11. ↑ Spitzberg, Brian H. (October 2002). "The Tactical Topography of Stalking Victimization and Management". Trauma Violence Abuse. 3 (4): 261–288. doi:10.1177/1524838002237330. S2CID   146721263.
  12. ↑ Grau J, Fagan J, and Wexler S. Restraining orders for battered women: Issues of access and efficacy. Women and Politics, Vol. 4, 1984, pp. 13–28.
  13. ↑ Harrell A and Smith B. Effects of restraining orders on domestic violence victims. In Buzawa C and Buzawa E (eds.): Do Arrests and Restraining Orders Work? Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1996. p. 229.
  14. ↑ McFarlane J, Malecha A, Gist J et al. Protection orders and intimate partner violence: An 18-month study of 150 Black, Hispanic, and White women. American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 94, No. 4, pp. 613–618.
  15. ↑ American Bar Association Family Legal Guide . Random House Reference. 27 April 2004. ISBN   978-0375720772.
  16. ↑ Sorenson SB, Shen H (July 2005). "Restraining Orders in California: A Look at Statewide Data". Violence Against Women. 11 (7): 912–933. doi:10.1177/1077801205276944. PMID   16043577. S2CID   39711827.
  17. ↑ "Process for Obtaining a Restraining Order in Wisconsin" (PDF). WCADV. Wisconsin Coalition Against Domestic Violence. Archived from the original on 2016-03-10. Retrieved 12 January 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  18. ↑ "Family Law Act 1996". www.legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved 2016-05-10.
  19. ↑ "About guidelines" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-05-09. Retrieved 2010-04-19.
  20. ↑ "Home". broken-rainbow.org.uk.
  21. ↑ "The Survivor's Handbook - Womens Aid". Women's Aid. Archived from the original on 2015-07-04. Retrieved 2016-05-10.
  22. ↑ 18 U.S.C.   § 2265(a)
  23. ↑ 18 U.S.C.   § 922(g)(8)
  24. ↑ "Prosecutions Under 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(8)". U.S. Attorney Manual. 19 February 2015.
  25. ↑ "LexisNexis® Legal Resources". Archived from the original on 2009-04-05. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
  26. ↑ "HRO FAQs". Minnesota Judicial Branch. Archived from the original on August 15, 2013. Retrieved February 15, 2012.
  27. ↑ "Domestic Violence Protective Orders" . Retrieved March 3, 2015.
  28. ↑ "Domestic Violence Civil Protection Orders (CPOs) By State" (PDF). American Bar Association Commission on Domestic Violence. August 2016.
  29. ↑ "Stalking/Harassment Civil Protection Orders (CPOs) by State" (PDF). American Bar Association Commission on Domestic Violence. June 2009.
  30. ↑ "Sexual Assault Civil Protection Orders (CPOs) By State" (PDF). American Bar Association Commission on Domestic Violence. April 2015.
  31. ↑ Mindlin, Jessica; Reeves, Liani (2005). "Rights and Remedies: Meeting the Civil Legal Needs of Sexual Violence Survivors". The National Crime Victim Law Institute. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
  32. ↑ "Restraining Orders in Wisconsin" (PDF). WCADV. Wisconsin Coalition Against Domestic Violence. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
  33. ↑ "Domestic Violence Prevention Act". California Family Code. LegInfo. Retrieved 13 October 2018.
  34. ↑ Fies, Andy (February 16, 2018). "How a temporary restraining order for guns could help stop mass shootings". ABCNews.com . Retrieved February 18, 2018.
  35. 1 2 3 Gawron, Tomáš (12 May 2020). "When marriage becomes unbearable: Restraining order and preliminary injunction for alimony prior to divorce in the Czech Republic". gawron.cz. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.