Gender apartheid

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Gender apartheid (also called sexual apartheid [1] [a] or sex apartheid) is the economic and social sexual discrimination against individuals because of their gender or sex. It is a system enforced by using either physical or legal practices to relegate individuals to subordinate positions. [4] Feminist scholar Phyllis Chesler, professor of psychology and women's studies, defines the phenomenon as "practices which condemn girls and women to a separate and subordinate sub-existence and which turn boys and men into the permanent guardians of their female relatives' chastity". [5] Instances of gender apartheid lead not only to the social and economic disempowerment of individuals, but can also result in severe physical harm. [6]

Contents

Etymology

The term "gender apartheid" stems from South Africa's racial apartheid that instituted a system of white supremacy (Afrikaans : Baasskap ) and separated the country's majority black inhabitants from whites. [7] Afrikaans for "apartness" or "separateness", the use of the term "apartheid" to refer to gender reflects a human rights violation that entails both separation and oppression. [6] In defining apartheid, Dr. Anthony Löwstedt wrote:

The concept of separateness in itself does not necessarily imply that any group is or will be favored over any other... The distinctive characteristic of apartheid and of other kinds of oppressive segregation is that political, economic, social, and even geographic conditions are created consciously and systematically in order to forcibly separate groups, invariably to the benefit—at least the short-term benefit—of at least one of the groups, but never, or only accidentally, to the benefit of all of them. [6]

Gender apartheid is a universal phenomenon and is not confined to a particular country. While reports of gender apartheid have most frequently arisen in the context of Islamic culture, it is prevalent around the world. Some human rights advocates have argued for sanctions against states practicing gender apartheid, similar to those imposed on South Africa under apartheid. [8] [9]

In religion

Instances of gender apartheid have been found institutionalized through religious and cultural practices. For example, aspects of the treatment of women under fundamentalist interpretations of Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and Buddhism have been described as gender apartheid. [10] Use of faith, often through strict interpretations of religious code, to justify gender apartheid is highly controversial. [11]

Catholicism

The terms gender apartheid and sexual apartheid have also been used to describe differential treatment of women in institutions such as the Church of England [12] and the Roman Catholic Church. Presbyterian minister and author Patricia Budd Kepler points towards women's institutionalized struggle for acceptance into clergy and religious leadership roles as an example of gender apartheid. Specifically, Kepler criticizes the traditional conceptions of masculinity and femininity that limit female authority in the church, insisting instead that women's entrance into the ministry does not disrupt divine order. [13] Similarly, author Susan D. Rose describes the patriarchal family structure of evangelical Christian churches in America as maintaining gender apartheid. [14]

The Roman Catholic Church has been identified as perpetuating gender apartheid due to the Vatican's listing of "the attempted sacred ordination of a woman" as a delicta graviora—in other words, a crime of equal standing to sexual molestation of minors, and "acquisition, possession or distribution of [child] pornography by a cleric". [15] [16] [17] In light of such, some have characterized the Catholic Church as endorsing patriarchy and subsequently alienating women from leadership roles within religion. [16]

Islam

Female-only prayer room in a mosque Frauengebetsraum Khadija-Moschee.jpg
Female-only prayer room in a mosque
A member of the Taliban's religious police beating a woman in Kabul on 26 August 2001 (footage filmed by RAWA). Under Taliban rule, Afghan women were forced to cover their entire bodies. Taliban beating woman in public RAWA.jpg
A member of the Taliban's religious police beating a woman in Kabul on 26 August 2001 (footage filmed by RAWA). Under Taliban rule, Afghan women were forced to cover their entire bodies.

The Islamic religion has been criticised for the discriminatory nature of its personal status laws and criminal code as applied to women. [19] Islam's patriarchal values remain one of its most contested principles, according to differing schools of thought. Generally, however, male and female rights differ considerably according to Islamic personal status laws. [20] For instance, Muslim men are permitted to engage in polygamy and marry Non-Muslim women while Muslim women are forbidden from having multiple husbands and marrying non-Muslim men, [21] [22] [23] [24] and female inheritances are half of their male sibling's.[ citation needed ] Furthermore, conviction by Islamic criminal jurisprudence further discriminates against women, as it relies heavily on witness testimony. Female testimonies alone are considered insufficient to convict a murderer, requiring a male testimony for validation. [19]

The observance of sexual modesty and plain dress for both Muslim men and women is prescribed by the ḥadīth literature and sunnah (deeds and sayings attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions); [20] the practice of forced veiling is perceived in some areas as a form of gender apartheid. [25] The practice of forced veiling is, according to Shahrzad Mojab, not due to any universal Islamic code; rather, Shahrzad states "the practice has risen under different contextual circumstances". [25] The dress code imposed in Afghanistan under the Taliban regime and schools that require girls to wear a headscarf have been cited as examples of forced veiling. [26] [27] [28] These policies of forced veiling have been criticized as coercive instruments for gender segregation that deny female autonomy and agency. [28] [29] However, objections to this argument suggest that forced veiling does not constitute gender apartheid and that social constructions of the veil have wrongfully made it a symbol of gender inequality. [29] During the five-year history of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, the Taliban regime interpreted the Sharia law in accordance with the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence and the religious edicts of Mullah Omar. [18] Women were banned from working, [18] girls were forbidden to attend schools or universities, [18] were requested to observe purdah and to be accompanied outside their households by male relatives; those who violated these restrictions were punished. [18] Men were forbidden to shave their beards and required to let them grow and keep them long according to the Taliban's liking, and to wear turbans outside their households. [18] [30] Among other things, the Taliban also forbade both male and female participation in sport, [18] including football and chess, [18] as well as recreational activities such as kite-flying and keeping pigeons or other pets were also forbidden, and the birds were killed according to the Taliban's ruling. [18]

Women's rights activist Mahnaz Afkhami writes that the Islamic fundamentalist worldview "singles out women's status and her relations to society as the supreme test of the authenticity of the Islamic order." This is symbolized by the institutions of purdah (physical separation of the sexes) and awrah (concealing the body with clothing). As in much of the world, institutions suppressing women were becoming less powerful until the resurgence of Islamic fundamentalism at the end of the 20th century. [31] Walid Phares writes that Marxism in the Soviet Union and China, as well as "secular anticlericalism" in Turkey forced women to "integrate themselves into an antireligious society" resulting in a backlash of "gender apartheid" by Islamic fundamentalists. He notes that other religions also have "witnessed similar historical struggles." [32]

Judaism

Sign at an Israeli beach for segregated bathing, to accommodate Haredi Jews Separate beach signs, Ashkelon.jpg
Sign at an Israeli beach for segregated bathing, to accommodate Haredi Jews

Haredi Judaism, also known as ultra-Orthodox Judaism, has been criticized for instituting gender apartheid policies and beliefs. [33] [34] Comprising a small but steadily growing minority within the Jewish culture, Haredi Judaism is distinguished as a community of scholars, with a significantly larger proportion of men continuing their education in yeshiva than women in seminary. [35] Followers of Haredi Judaism are also distinct for their clothing and general appearance: unshaven beards, long dark overcoats, and wide-brimmed hats for men; and modestly covered women. [36] Accusations of gender apartheid point towards the culture's repressive nature and sex segregation, as well as the demonization of females as sexual temptation. [35] Additionally, public images of women have been defaced in Haredi communities, and young Jewish girls have been spat on and called prostitutes for wearing clothing deemed immodest. [37] Reports suggest that it is largely Haredi fundamentalists who are responsible for acts of gender apartheid, and that the Haredi community as a whole does not condone such practices. [38]

Actions of fundamentalist Haredi Jews in Israel have been referred to as gender apartheid. [33] While women customarily sit in the back of buses in parts of Israel, no formal edict enforces such. However, one incident arose in December 2011 in which a Haredi man asked a woman seated in the front of the bus to move towards the back; her subsequent refusal spurred a larger gathering. Police intervention ultimately broke apart the confrontation. Regarding the event, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu expressed his support for public spaces for all and unity within the community. [39] There have also been reports of Haredi Jews spitting at women, attacking television crews, and protesting with signs instructing women how to dress and to avoid walking by synagogues. [40]

Buddhism

Certain Tibetan Buddhist schools[ example needed ] require women to process into seminaries and other forms of worship after the men.[ citation needed ] They are also segregated from men during these events and many other occasions; for example, informal gatherings and dinners, especially when these take place in the presence of a senior monk.[ citation needed ] There is also anecdotal evidence of men and women—including husbands and wives—being forced to take separate transportation to some Buddhist events[ example needed ] and even being required to stay in separate hotel rooms when they are attending them.[ citation needed ]

Case studies

Many countries in the world exhibit acts of gender apartheid, though they are more commonly evidenced in the developing world. The following are nations that have purportedly practiced some instance of gender apartheid.

Afghanistan

Afghanistan, under Taliban religious leadership, has been characterized by feminist groups and others as a system of gender apartheid in which women were segregated from men in public and could not enjoy legal freedoms or equal access to employment or education. [41] [42] Rising to power in late 1996, the Taliban accrued international attention for its treatment of women, enacting policies that limited women's freedom of movement, employment, and education rights. [43] Under Taliban rule, women were at risk for detainment and physical abuse if found guilty for violating the imposed dress code, with violations that included: exposure of the hands, wrist, feet, or face; not wearing a burqa; and wearing items perceived to be offensive, e.g. white socks/shoes, stylish clothing, shoes that make noise while walking. [26]

In June 2023, U.N. Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan, Richard Bennett, told the Human Rights Council in Geneva about "gender apartheid" in Afghanistan. [44]

Iran

During the late 20th and early 21st centuries in Iran, women's rights have been severely restricted, compared with those in most developed nations. The World Economic Forum's 2017 Global Gender Gap Report ranked Iran 140, out of 144 countries, for gender parity. In 2017, in Iran, females comprised just 19% of the paid workforce, with seven percent growth since 1990. [45] In 2017, the Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security (WPS) Index ranked Iran in the bottom tercile of 153 countries. [46] Compared to other South Asian regions, women in Iran have a better access to financial accounts, education, and cellphones. [46] : 16  Iran was ranked 116, out of the 153 countries, in terms of legal discrimination against women. [46] : 16 

Malaysia

In 2006, Marina Mahathir, the daughter of Malaysia's former Prime Minister and an active campaigner for women's rights, described the status of Muslim women in Malaysia as similar to that of Black South Africans under apartheid. [47] [48] Marina's remarks were made in response to a new Islamic law that enables men to divorce or take up to four wives. The law also granted husbands more authority over their wives' property. [47] Conservative groups such as the Malaysian Muslim Professionals Forum criticized her comments for insulting Sharia and undermining the prominent role of women in Malaysia compared to other Muslim and east Asian countries. [47]

Pakistan

Pakistani society has been described as employing gender apartheid due to the subordinate status of women in political, economic, and social spheres. For instance, the Citizens Act of 1951 prevents Pakistani women with foreign husbands from obtaining for their spouses Pakistani citizenship. [49] The gender disparities in economic activity, education and literacy, and societal sex ratio have also been cited as evidence of systematic gender apartheid in Pakistan. [50]

Some studies suggest that gender roles in Pakistani society are transmitted via primary and secondary school textbooks, by neglecting to include important female figures in history and social studies. [51] Gender apartheid is therefore institutionalized through text and images in which women are appropriated to domestic roles and rarely portrayed working outside of the house. Moreover, in terms of personality and disposition, males and females are characterized as distinct opposites: while women are "vain, silly and stupid", men are "intelligent, brave and strong". [51] Consequently, socialized gender roles reinforce and perpetuate gender apartheid.

Efforts to stop discriminatory treatment of women have been made through policies such as the Women's Protection Bill, enacted by Pakistan's National Assembly in December 2006. [52] The act amended the Hudood Ordinance that dictated punishment for various crimes such as rape, theft, and adultery. Previously, the Hudood Ordinances were a subject of controversy for their misogynistic nature and purportedly legal subjugation of women. [53] For instance, female rape victims could be convicted on the basis that their rape amounted to adultery and fornication if not proven otherwise. [54]

Saudi Arabia

Sign prohibiting women from a gymnasium in the Marriott Hotel in Jeddah Jeddah Marriott no women sign.jpg
Sign prohibiting women from a gymnasium in the Marriott Hotel in Jeddah

Saudi Arabia's practices with regard to women have been referred to consistently as gender apartheid. [55] [56] Acts of gender apartheid purportedly manifest in many different forms, such as the ban on women from physical education in school and from watching sporting events at stadiums.[ citation needed ] Women were formerly prohibited from driving and still require male permission in order to travel. [57] The Commission for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice oversees the enforcement of sex segregation in Saudi Arabian civil life; any unlawful mixing between the sexes is punished harshly. The Saudi education system also enforces strict gender roles by teaching that women's subservience is innate to womanhood. [58] More recently, a new technology system has been introduced that alerts male guardians by text when their female dependent has left the country. [59] In general, women in Saudi Arabia possess the same legal rights as minors and cannot make major decisions, e.g. in education, work, and healthcare, without the consent of a male relative. [59]

Marginalization of women in Saudi society has generated great pressure both domestically and internationally. Recent advancements have been seen in light of Arab Spring and the 2011–2012 Saudi Arabian protests, such as King Abdullah granting women's suffrage in the 2015 municipal elections. [57] Additionally, Saudi Arabia has also lifted some restrictions on the use of motorbikes and bicycles by women; women may now bike in certain spaces if properly attired in the abaya and accompanied by a male guardian. [60]

Social interventions

Scholars and activists alike have criticized international law for its lack of initiative and public action in recognizing particular acts as gender apartheid and acting to prevent it. [61] According to these critics, cultural relativism has too often been a source of defense for gender apartheid, by safeguarding women's oppression from change and subversion. The rhetoric surrounding gender apartheid has also been viewed negatively as a form of neocolonialism that perpetuates stereotypes of Islam. [29] [61] The United Nations' response to the Taliban's human rights violations against women in Afghanistan has in particular been the subject of much controversy. Some argue that the UN "not only failed to prevent and, later, to become an effective opponent of the gender policies of the Taliban regime, but that it actually incorporated discrimination against women in its humanitarian assistance and in the recruitment of local staff." [43]

In 1997, the Feminist Majority Foundation (FMF) launched the Campaign to Stop Gender Apartheid in Afghanistan, calling attention to the human rights abuses against women under the Taliban. [62] It has been criticized for promoting "imperial feminism" and for possessing an exploitative tone that denounces Islam as evil. [63] Following the fall of the Taliban regime, the campaign has since expanded and been renamed to become the Campaign for Afghan Women and Girls. It is chaired by Mavis Leno and aims to continue raising awareness of gender inequality in Afghanistan. [62]

The No Women, No Play campaign was launched in 2009 by the Hadi Al Mutif Program for Human Rights at the Institute for Gulf Affairs to address women's status in Saudi Arabia.[ citation needed ] The campaign aims to ban Saudi Arabia from the Olympics until it allows Saudi Arabian women to take part in sports. [64] In its charter, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) declares that participation in sporting activities is a human right.[ citation needed ] Besides the No Women, No Play campaign, other organizations such as Human Rights Watch have drawn public attention to Saudi Arabia for its sporting restrictions against women. [57]

In regards to gender apartheid in Roman Catholicism specifically, the Roman Catholic Womenpriests (RCWP) formed to defy the church position banning the ordination of women. [65] The group has since accrued further intention with the release of the 2011 documentary Pink Smoke over the Vatican . [66]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ However, sexual apartheid may refer to separate laws which exist for heterosexual and non-heterosexual people. [2] [3]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taliban</span> Islamist militant organization in control of Afghanistan

The Taliban, which also refers to itself by its state name, the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is an Afghan political and militant movement with an ideology comprising elements of Pashtun nationalism and the Deobandi movement of Islamic fundamentalism. It ruled approximately 75% of Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001, before it was overthrown by an American invasion after the September 11th attacks carried out by the Taliban's ally al-Qaeda. The Taliban recaptured Kabul in August 2021 following the departure of coalition forces, after 20 years of Taliban insurgency, and now controls the entire country. The Taliban government is not recognized by any country and has been internationally condemned for restricting human rights, including women's rights to work and have an education.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Treatment of women by the Taliban</span> Gender policies, punishments of the Taliban

The treatment of women by the Taliban refers to actions and policies by two distinct Taliban regimes in Afghanistan which are either specific or highly commented upon, mostly due to discrimination, since they first took control in 1996. During their first rule of Afghanistan, the Taliban were notorious internationally for their misogyny and violence against women. In 1996, women were mandated to wear the burqa at all times in public. In a systematic segregation sometimes referred to as gender apartheid, women were not allowed to work, nor were they allowed to be educated after the age of eight. Women seeking an education were forced to attend underground schools, where they and their teachers risked execution if caught. They were not allowed to be treated by male doctors unless accompanied by a male chaperone, which led to illnesses remaining untreated. They faced public flogging and execution for violations of the Taliban's laws.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hijab</span> Islamic head covering for women

In modern usage, hijab generally refers to variety of head coverings conventionally worn by many religious Muslim women as an expression of faith. Such women may be called "hijabi". Similar to the mitpaḥat/tichel or snood worn by religious married Jewish women, certain headcoverings worn by some Christian women, such as the hanging veil, apostolnik and kapp, and the dupatta favored by many Hindu and Sikh women, the hijab comes in various forms. Often, it specifically describes a scarf that is wrapped around the head, covering the hair, neck, and ears while leaving the face visible. The use of the hijab has grown globally since the 1970s, with many Muslims viewing it as a symbol of modesty and faith; it is also worn as a form of adornment. There is consensus among Islamic religious scholars that covering the head is either required or preferred. In practice, most Muslim women choose to wear it.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Purdah</span> Seclusion of women in some Muslim and Hindu communities

Pardah or purdah is a religious and social practice of gender partition prevalent among some Muslim and Hindu communities. It takes two forms: social partition of the sexes and the requirement that women cover their bodies so as to cover their skin and conceal their form. A woman who practices purdah can be referred to as pardanashin or purdahnishan. The term purdah is also used to describe related practices, such as the pre-election period of sensitivity occurring in the weeks leading up to a general election or referendum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex segregation</span> Physical, legal, and cultural separation of people according to their biological sex

Sex segregation, sex separation, sex partition,gender segregation,gender separation, or gender partition is the physical, legal, or cultural separation of people according to their gender or biological sex at any age. Sex segregation can refer simply to the physical and spatial separation by sex without any connotation of illegal discrimination. In other circumstances, sex segregation can be controversial. Depending on the circumstances, it can be a violation of capabilities and human rights and can create economic inefficiencies; on the other hand, some supporters argue that it is central to certain religious laws and social and cultural histories and traditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamic feminism</span> Feminist discourse and practice articulated within an Islamic paradigm

Islamic feminism is a form of feminism concerned with the role of women in Islam. It aims for the full equality of all Muslims, regardless of gender, in public and private life. Islamic feminists advocate for women's rights, gender equality, and social justice grounded in an Islamic framework. Although rooted in Islam, the movement's pioneers have also utilized secular, Western, or otherwise non-Muslim feminist discourses, and have recognized the role of Islamic feminism as part of an integrated global feminist movement.

Gender roles in Islam are based on scriptures, cultural traditions, and jurisprudence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Islam</span> Womens role in Islamic culture

The experiences of Muslim women vary widely between and within different societies; Often not due to the religion of Islam like many may perceieve, but due to pre-existing cultural and societal standards, expectations, and roles for women in regions adhering to Islam. At the same time, their adherence to Islam is a shared factor that affects their lives to a varying degree and gives them a common identity that may serve to bridge the wide cultural, social, and economic differences between them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islam and gender segregation</span> Gender segregation in Islamic law

Gender segregation in Islamic law, custom, law and traditions refers to the practices and requirements in Islamic countries and communities for the separation of men and boys from women and girls in social and other settings. In terms of actual practice, the degree of adherence to these rules depends on local laws and cultural norms. In some Muslim-majority countries, men and women who are unrelated may be forbidden to interact closely or participate in the same social spaces. In other Muslim countries, these practices may be partly or completely unobserved. These rules are generally more relaxed in the media and in business settings, and more strictly observed in religious or formal settings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of first women's suffrage in majority-Muslim countries</span>

This timeline lists the dates of the first women's suffrage in Muslim majority countries. Dates for the right to vote, suffrage, as distinct from the right to stand for election and hold office, are listed.

Movements for Muslim women to seek roles in national leadership have increased rapidly. Greater opportunities for women in education have further encouraged their involvement in politics. The most prominent and important Muslim female leaders are former prime minister of Pakistan Benazir Bhutto, Indonesian President Megawati Sukarnoputri (2001–2004), former Turkish Prime Minister Tansu Çiller (1993–1996), former Senegalese Prime Minister Mame Madior Boye (2001–2002), Bangladeshi Prime Ministers Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina Wajed, former Iranian Vice President Masoumeh Ebtekar (1997–2005), former Malian Prime Minister Cissé Mariam Kaïdama Sidibé (2011–2012), Kosovan President Atifete Jahjaga (2011–2016), former President of Mauritius Ameenah Gurib (2015–2018), former President of Singapore Halimah Yacob (2017–2023) and current President of Tanzania Samia Suluhu Hassan

Women in Saudi Arabia experience widespread discrimination in Saudi politics, economy and society. They have benefited from some legal reforms since 2017, after facing fundamentalist Sahwa dominance for decades. According to Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, Saudi women are still discriminated against in terms to marriage, family, and divorce despite the reforms, and the Saudi government continues to target and repress women's rights activists and movements. Prominent feminist campaigns include the Women to Drive Movement and the anti male-guardianship campaign, which have led to significant advances in women's rights.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Afghanistan</span> Rights of females in the country Afghanistan

Women's rights in Afghanistan are severely restricted by the Taliban. In 2023, the United Nations termed Afghanistan as the world's most repressive country for women. Since the US troops withdrawal from Afghanistan in 2021, the Taliban gradually imposed restrictions on women's freedom of movement, education, and employment. Women are banned from studying in secondary schools and universities, making Afghanistan the only country to prohibit females from studying beyond the sixth grade. Women are not allowed in parks, gyms, or beauty salons. They are forbidden from going outside for a walk or exercise, from speaking or showing any part of their face or body outside the home, or even from singing or reading from within their own homes if they could be heard by strangers outside. In extreme cases, women have reportedly been subjected to gang-rape and torture in Taliban prisons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stoning</span> Method of capital punishment

Stoning, or lapidation, is a method of capital punishment where a group throws stones at a person until the subject dies from blunt trauma. It has been attested as a form of punishment for grave misdeeds since ancient times.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamic veiling practices by country</span>

Various styles of head coverings, most notably the khimar, hijab, chador, niqab, paranja, yashmak, tudong, shayla, safseri, carşaf, haik, dupatta, boshiya and burqa, are worn by Muslim women around the world, where the practice varies from mandatory to optional or restricted in different majority Muslim and non-Muslim countries.

Islamic religious police are official Islamic vice squad police agencies, often in Muslim-majority countries, which enforce religious observance and public morality on behalf of national or regional authorities based on its interpretation of sharīʿah. Modern Islamic religious police forces were first established in the late-1970s amidst the Iranian Revolution (1979) and the Islamic revival that the event brought to the Muslim world; prior, the administration of public morality in most Muslim-majority countries was considered a socio-religious matter, and was enforced through application of civil laws and/or through more informal means.

The evolution and history of women in Asia coincide with the evolution and history of Asian continent itself. They also correspond with the cultures that developed within the region. Asian women can be categorically grouped as women from the Asian subregions of Central Asia, East Asia, North Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Western Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex segregation in Saudi Arabia</span>

Sexual segregation in Saudi Arabia is a cultural practice and government policy which keeps Saudi wives, sisters and daughters away from contact with male strangers (non-mahram) and vice versa. However, since Mohammed bin Salman was appointed Crown Prince in 2017, a series of social reforms have been witnessed that created cultural changes, which included putting an end to the sex (gender) segregation enforcement. The Saudi sex segregation originated from an extreme concern for female purity and family honour. Social events used to be largely predicated on the separation of men and women; the mixing of non-related men and women at parties and other social gatherings were extremely rare and limited to some of the modern Western-educated families.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Capital punishment for homosexuality</span>

Capital punishment as a criminal punishment for homosexuality has been implemented by a number of countries in their history. It is a legal punishment in several countries and regions, all of which have sharia-based criminal laws, except for Uganda.

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