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In Judaism, especially in Orthodox Judaism, there are a number of settings in which men and women are kept separate in order to conform with various elements of halakha and to prevent men and women from mingling. Other streams of Judaism rarely separate genders any more than secular western society.
There are a variety of reasons in Judaism for gender separation.
In Pirkei Avot 1:5, Yosi ben Yochanan says that a man who spends too much time talking to women, even his wife, neglects the study of Torah and will inherit gehinnom. [1]
Chapter 152 of Kitzur Shulchan Aruch details a series of laws forbidding interaction between persons of the opposite sex who are not married or closely related. [2] Some of the prohibitions include negiah (physical contact), yichud (isolation with members of the opposite sex), staring at women or any of their body parts or attire, or conversation for pleasure.
During prayer services in Orthodox synagogues, seating is always separate. A mechitza is used to divide the men and women, and often to block the view from one section to the other. The reason for this is that a man might be distracted during prayer if he spots a beautiful woman. Halakha permits women to look at men in a synagogue during prayer services.
The first mention of a mechitza is in the context of the second temple itself, the temple contained an inner court and a Women's court. [3] Separation was first instituted just for the once-a-year celebration of the annual "Water-Drawing Ceremony", simḥat beit hashoevah, held on the second night of the autumn Sukkot festival. However, women regularly entered the Beit Hamikdash Holy area at all other times just as any Israelite man could to bring their personal sacrifices.
Separation of men and women also was established later within the Rabbinic Law, which established daily communal prayers binding to men only, and the central area of the synagogue was only allowed to be occupied by men as well. [3] However, during the early modern period, Moshe Rosman noted that, women began attending synagogue more often, which reflected on the changes to synagogue architecture. Changes that occurred to synagogue architecture included, the construction of the weibershule – separate rooms in which women conducted their own prayers, also ezrat nashim – separate women's section in the synagogue, in which women prayer leaders mediated between the main services and the women's prayers, in a manner again very much determined by the initiatives of women. [3] Today, some more liberal Orthodox congregations have enacted innovations allowing women a greater sense of participation, as long as they remain on their side of the mechitza. Mechitzot are not only found in synagogues during prayer services, but in other aspects of Jewish life such as festivities, like weddings, lectures, concerts, and b'nei mitzvah.
Conservative, Reform and other types of synagogues generally do not have separate seating.
During the late 19th century, no formal segregation of men and women was to be found at the Western Wall. [4] In recent years, the Western Wall in Jerusalem has become a site of conflict and contention between liberal and feminist Jews. [5] The Western Wall has been defended by the Orthodox faith for generations, which is why many of the traditions have been maintained such as gender segregation. Many Orthodox Jews believe that in order to keep the sanctity of the wall, proper gender roles must be adhered. In the mid-twentieth century, a mechitza was set up at the wall to maintain and enforce gender separation; this caused conflict between the Haredi Jews and the Arabs. [5] The progressives responded to these actions by the Orthodox sector, by claiming that "the Wall is a shrine of all Jews, not one particular branch of Judaism" [6] In 1988, Women of the Wall launched a campaign for recognition of women's right to pray at the Wall in their fashion. [7] [8] Their form and manner of prayer elicited a violent response from some Orthodox worshippers, and they were initially banned from holding services at the site. In response to the repeated arrests of women, including Anat Hoffman, trying to exercise their freedom of religion, the Jewish Agency observed "the urgent need to reach a permanent solution and make the Western Wall once again a symbol of unity among the Jewish people, and not one of discord and strife". The Israeli high court finally affirmed in 2000 the right to have women pray at the wall according to their custom, whether it be Reform, Conservative, or Orthodox. This new law included the right for women to be able to pray aloud, read from the Torah, and wear a tallit; the supreme court also recognized that the wall was "owned" by the Orthodox sector, but felt that women had the right to pray how they wish. After the supreme court ruled upon this, some Haredi Jewish men tried to petition the court to criminalize women who read from the Torah, wore a tallit, or blew shofar at the Wall. In 2003 this petition was looked at by the Israeli court and the court appealed the previously passed bill, the reasoning behind the repeal was because women praying at the wall would be a threat to public safety. [5] The courts decision to once again limit women's rights at the Wall came from a place of fear, that if they did not limit their rights that there would be an uprising by the Haredi sector. [9]
Women of the Wall has also protested the fact that at Hanukkah every year a giant menorah is erected in the men's section of the Western Wall and each night of the eight nights of the festival, male rabbis and male politicians are honored, while women must peer over the mechitzah roughly 10 meters away to view the menorah. At the Women of the Wall ceremony, women brought their personal menorahs. They invited Jews around the world to light a candle for WoW on the third night of Hanukkah. [10] Western Wall rabbi Shmuel Rabinowitz accused WoW of ulterior motives of trying to change the customs at the Wall. Responding to Rabinowitz' accusation, Anat Hoffman noted: "Rabinowitz has never invited Women of the Wall or any other women to participate in the ceremonies or to be honored with the lighting of a candle at the Kotel on Hanukkah, despite the fact that women are obligated equally to men in this religious act.” In 2014 the personal menorahs the women brought to the Kotel were initially confiscated, but they were returned when police were called. [11] [12]
At many Orthodox weddings and b’nei mitzvah, seating at the ceremony, and often the reception, is separate, sometimes with a mechitza.
Reform Judaism has been approaching the theme in a less discriminatory way, including both genders at the traditional Shabbat, which replaces Bar Mitzvah with Confirmation. [13]
Many Orthodox Jews believe that men and women should not swim together. The laws prohibiting mixed bathing are derived from the laws of tzniut. This is due to concerns that bathing suits are inherently immodest, and do not meet tzniut requirements. In particular, a woman who comes dressed in a bathing suit to a pool is appearing publicly not meeting the requirements of tzniut, and a man who comes to a pool where women are dressed in bathing suits will inevitably see women dressed in this manner. Indeed, many pools within Jewish communities have separate hours for male and female swimming to accommodate those who follow this law.
Women following the laws of tzniut will wear a long T-shirt style dress over their bathing suit that meets tzniut requirements, considering this to be sufficient for swimming in the presence of men. Men, though, are more strict about the presence of immodestly-dressed women, due to concerns over the possibility of arousal.
Conservative, Reform, and other forms of Judaism do not have any restrictions on mixed swimming. Some Modern Orthodox Jews will also participate in mixed swimming.
Some Haredi communities enforce, or attempt to enforce, gender segregation on sidewalks. In New Square, New York, signs remain posted telling women to abide by modesty rules, and streets are strictly separated by gender, with women on the opposite side as men. [14] In the Mea Shearim section of Jerusalem, some Haredi Jews have also tried to segregate sidewalks. [15]
At Kiryas Joel, a Hasidic community in New York, a public park was opened that included separate sections for boys and girls, with a great distance between. Rabbi Gedalia Segdin, the town's treasurer, announced the park would be under the scrutiny of the town "Modesty Committee" to ensure gender segregation. Yiddish signs distributed throughout the park making sure everyone kept to their specified section. Civil rights organizations protested gender segregation in a public space in New York. [16]
Public performances from female singers are discouraged in Haredi communities due to kol isha, the law that men are forbidden from listening to women sing as established in Berakhot 24a of the Talmud. In 2019, the Israeli High Court banned a gender segregated concert from taking place in Afula, but the ruling was too late as the performance was almost over. This was one of hundreds of gender segregated events the city hosted that summer. [17]
In 2012, Haredi radio station Kol Berama was sued by Kolech for violating anti-discrimination laws. The station refused to employ female broadcasters and did not take calls from female listeners. [18]
Orthodox Jews do not participate in mixed dancing, since dancing in most forms involves some contact between dancers.
Some followers of Haredi Judaism have taken on the practice of separate seating while traveling. These range from abstaining from sitting adjacent to a member of the opposite sex, to having separate vehicles altogether.
When Haredi have attempted to enforce gender segregation on public transportation such as buses and airlines, conflict with anti-discrimination laws have sometimes ensued. There have been complaints by airline passengers such as Renee Rabinowitz who have been subjected to Haredi male passengers attempting to impose gender segregation on flights. [19] The New York Times interviewed Anat Hoffman on the phenomenon on Haredi males asking female passengers on airlines to move. IRAC had started a campaign urging women not to give up their seats. [20] El Al airlines has future plans to fly single-gender flights for Haredi Jews following this practice. [21] In 2017, the Jerusalem Magistrates Court ruled that employees of airlines could not request female passengers change their seats just because men wish them to. [22]
During the 1990s, members of the Haredi sector began making requests for public transport services be compatible with what they claimed was the character of their community in Israel. This entailed the segregation of men and women on public transportation such as buses. When this movement first began private transport services emerged and began to cater to Haredi demands. [23] Due to these new bus lines a new committee was instituted in the Ministry of Transportation, led by Nachum Langenthal. [23] The Langenthal committee decided that segregation was to be voluntary, and could be adhered to by the Haredi Jews, but it could not to be enforced on others. Though on city run buses it was not enforced, private buses could enforce these segregation rules. These buses were called mehadrin bus lines. [23]
By 2010, there were approximately fifty public bus services designated as mehadrin; although this represented a small portion of the total public buses, it allowed for tensions to grow between the Haredi community and the rest of the population. [23] Private bus lines were established all across Israel, caused issues to arise especially where such lines were the only viable form of transportation in the area. Mehadrin bus lines became more prevalent in areas that had a high concentration of Haredi communities. Due to the segregation rules, the status of women became a direct issue in the Israeli community. When many of the buses became overcrowded, enforcing the segregation rules became harder, and many of the Haredi men complained about having to touch passengers of the opposite sex. [23]
When the mehadrin buses became more popular the Israeli women's network petitioned the high court arguing that the segregation policy on mehadrin lines discriminated against women. [23] The Israeli Supreme Court denied the application of the Israel Women's Network on the grounds that the gender segregation on buses was supported by the religious community and should be respected. [23] After the denial of the Israel Women's Network, modesty guards, super Haredi men who attempted to enforce the segregation rules themselves, began to appear on buses. In some cases women were forced off the bus or subjected to physical or verbal abuse when not appropriately dressed, or when sitting near the front of the bus. [23] Although a myriad of protests occurred to stop the segregation it was defended by many, including rabbinic leaders and some members of the Haredi community, as intrinsic to the Haredi way of life.
Women in Judaism have affected the course of Judaism over millenia. Their role is reflected in the Hebrew Bible, the Oral Law, by custom, and by cultural factors. Although the Hebrew Bible and rabbinic literature present various female role models, religious law treats women in specific ways. According to a 2017 study by the Pew Research Center, women account for 52% of the worldwide Jewish population.
Haredi Judaism is a branch of Orthodox Judaism that is characterized by its strict interpretation of religious sources and its accepted halakha and traditions, in opposition to more accommodating values and practices. Its members are usually referred to as ultra-Orthodox in English; a term considered pejorative by many of its adherents, who prefer the terms strictly Orthodox or Haredi. Haredim regard themselves as the most authentic custodians of Jewish religious law and tradition which, in their opinion, is binding and unchangeable. They consider all other expressions of Judaism, including Modern Orthodoxy, as deviations from God's laws, although other movements of Judaism would disagree.
Modern Orthodox Judaism is a movement within Orthodox Judaism that attempts to synthesize Jewish values and the observance of Jewish law with the modern world.
Bnei Brak or Bene Beraq is a city located on the central Mediterranean coastal plain in Israel, just east of Tel Aviv. A center of Haredi Judaism, Bnei Brak covers an area of 709 hectares, and had a population of 218,357 in 2022. It is one of the poorest and most densely populated cities in Israel, and the fourth-most densely populated city in the world.
Beit Shemesh is a city located approximately 30 kilometres (19 mi) west of Jerusalem in Israel's Jerusalem District. A center of Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodoxy, Beit Shemesh has a population of 170,683 as of 2024.
Tzniut describes the character trait of modesty and discretion, as well as a group of Jewish laws pertaining to conduct. The concept is most important within Orthodox Judaism.
A mechitza in Judaism is a partition, particularly one that is used to separate men and women.
Religion in Israel is manifested primarily in Judaism, the ethnic religion of the Jewish people. The State of Israel declares itself as a "Jewish and democratic state" and is the only country in the world with a Jewish-majority population. Other faiths in the country include Islam, Christianity and the religion of the Druze people. Religion plays a central role in national and civil life, and almost all Israeli citizens are automatically registered as members of the state's 14 official religious communities, which exercise control over several matters of personal status, especially marriage. These recognized communities are Orthodox Judaism, Islam, the Druze faith, the Catholic Church, Greek Orthodox Church, Syriac Orthodox Church, Armenian Apostolic Church, Anglicanism, and the Baháʼí Faith.
Conservadox is the term occasionally applied to describe either individuals or congregations located on the religious continuum somewhere between the Conservative and Modern Orthodox wings of American Jewry. The epithet "Traditional" is also sparingly used for roughly the same sector, as in the Union for Traditional Judaism.
Jewish feminism is a movement that seeks to make the religious, legal, and social status of Jewish women equal to that of Jewish men in Judaism. Feminist movements, with varying approaches and successes, have opened up within all major branches of the Jewish religion.
Women of the Wall is a multi-denominational Jewish feminist organization based in Israel whose goal is to secure the rights of women to pray at the Western Wall, also called the Kotel, in a fashion that includes singing, reading aloud from the Torah and wearing religious garments. Pew Research Center has identified Israel as one of the countries that place "high" restrictions on religion, and there have been limits placed on non-Orthodox streams of Judaism. One of those restrictions is that the Rabbi of the Western Wall has enforced gender segregation and limitations on religious garb worn by women. When the "Women of the Wall" hold monthly prayer services for women on Rosh Hodesh, they observe gender segregation so that Orthodox members may fully participate. But their use of religious garb, singing and reading from a Torah have upset many members of the Orthodox Jewish community, sparking protests and arrests. In May 2013 a judge ruled that a 2003 Israeli Supreme Court ruling prohibiting women from carrying a Torah or wearing prayer shawls had been misinterpreted and that Women of the Wall prayer gatherings at the wall should not be deemed illegal.
The Israel Religious Action Center also known as IRAC, was established in 1987 as the public and legal advocacy arm of the Israel Movement for Progressive Judaism. It is located in Jerusalem, Israel. IRAC aims to defend equality, social justice, and religious pluralism within Israel, through the Israeli legal system, lobbying and publications. Author Elana Maryles Sztokman calls IRAC "the preeminent civil and human rights organization in Israel," advocating for a broadly inclusive democracy and promoting social justice. Recent campaigns include an effort to ban gender segregation on Israeli public buses, a successful public campaign for the abolition of income guarantees to kollel students, and a lobbying campaign in defense of human rights organizations operating in Israel.
Hashkafa is the Hebrew term for worldview and guiding philosophy, used almost exclusively within Orthodox Judaism. A hashkafa is a perspective that Orthodox Jews adopt that defines many aspects of their lives. Hashkafa thus plays a crucial role in how these interact with the world around them, and influences individual beliefs about secularity, gender roles, and modernity. In that it guides many practical decisions—where to send children to school, what synagogue to attend, and what community to live in—hashkafa works in conjunction with halakha or Jewish law.
A public menorah is a large menorah displayed publicly during the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah. It is done to celebrate the holiday and publicize the miracle of Hanukkah, and is typically accompanied by a public event during one of the nights of Hanukkah attended by invited dignitaries who are honored with lighting the menorah.
Mehadrin bus lines were a type of bus line in Israel that mostly ran in and/or between major Haredi population centers and in which gender segregation and other rigid religious rules observed by some Haredi Jews were applied from 1997 until 2011. In these sex-segregated buses, female passengers sat in the back of the bus and entered and exited the bus through the back door if possible, while the male passengers sat in the front part of the bus and entered and exited through the front door. Additionally, "modest dress" was often required for women, playing radio channels or secular music on the bus was avoided, while advertisements were censored. Mehadrin lines were generally cheaper than other lines. In early 2010, there were 56 Mehadrin buses in 28 cities across Israel operated by public transportation companies, although usually not specifically labelled.
Women in Israel comprise 50.26 percent of the state's population as of 2019. While Israel lacks an official constitution, the Israeli Declaration of Independence of 1948 states that “The State of Israel (…) will ensure complete equality of social and political rights to all its inhabitants irrespective of religion, race or sex.”
Kosher tourism is tourism which is geared mostly towards Orthodox Jews. The accommodations in these destinations include kosher foods, and are within walking distance of Orthodox synagogues. Flights to these destinations often have kosher airline meals available.
Religious relations in Israel are relations between Haredim, non-Haredi Orthodox, Karaite, Ethiopian, Reform, Conservative, and secular Jews, as well as relations between different religions represented in Israel. The religious status quo, agreed to by David Ben-Gurion with the Orthodox parties at the time of Israel's declaration of independence in 1948, is an agreement on the role that Judaism would play in Israel's government and the judicial system. Tensions exist between religious and secular groups in Israel.
The Western Wall Heritage Foundation, often mentioned as the Western Wall Foundation, is the body responsible for administration for all matters concerning the Western Wall in Jerusalem. The group is made up of mostly ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) Jews and operates under the auspices of the office of the Prime Minister of Israel and the Government Companies Authority. Rabbi Ilan Cohen previously served as the Foundation's Chairman, and the position is currently held by Rabbi Shmuel Rabinovitch.
The Kotel compromise is a compromise reached between orthodox and non-orthodox Jewish denominations, according to which the non-Orthodox "mixed" prayer area for men and women was supposed to be expanded in the southern part of the Western Wall. In contrast to the existing situation, access to this "mixed" prayer area was supposed to be from the main entrance to the Western Wall, and in addition it was supposed to be run by a council which would contain representatives of the non-Orthodox denominations and women of the Wall.
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