Gender and Jewish Studies is an emerging subfield at the intersection of gender studies, queer studies, and Jewish studies. Gender studies centers on interdisciplinary research on the phenomenon of gender. It focuses on cultural representations of gender and people's lived experience. [1] Similarly, queer studies focuses on the cultural representations and lived experiences of queer identities to critique hetero-normative values of sex and sexuality. [2] Jewish studies is a field that looks at Jews and Judaism, through such disciplines as history, anthropology, literary studies, linguistics, and sociology. As such, scholars of gender and Jewish studies are considering gender as the basis for understanding historical and contemporary Jewish societies. [3] This field recognizes that much of recorded Jewish history and academic writing is told from the perspective of “the male Jew” and fails to accurately represent the diverse experiences of Jews with non-dominant gender identities. [4]
Jewish law, or halacha , recognizes intersex and non-conforming gender identities in addition to male and female. [5] [6] Rabbinical literature recognizes six different genders, defined according to the development and presentation of primary and secondary sex characteristics at birth and later in life. [7] Jewish literature describes what today would be referred to as intersex such as the concept of a tumtum being a person of ambiguous gender and/or sex as is the concept of the androgynos , being a person characterized with elements of both sexes. The recognition of six different genders in rabbinical literature underscores the nuanced understanding of gender in Jewish tradition. This highlights the complexity of gender roles within Judaism, contributing to ongoing discussions and academic exploration in gender and Jewish studies. [8] One aspect of Gender and Jewish studies is considering how the ambiguity recognized in Rabbinical literature has been erased and constructed into a binary and how this translates into Jewish practices. [9]
Gender as it relates to Jewish studies has drawn increasing scholarly interest due in part to the founding of the Association for Jewish Studies' Woman's caucus in 1968, as well as gender studies and Jewish studies gaining interest as areas of academic study in the 1980s and fueled as well by popular and academic attention to Jewish feminism. [10] [11] The U.S.-based Association for Jewish Studies woman's caucus, works "to advance the study of gender within the Association for Jewish Studies and within the wider academic community" [12] and widely influenced Jewish studies as a whole to incorporate a gendered perspective in Jewish Scholarship. [13] AJS holds at least one panel on gender every annual meeting, provides funding for presentations on gender and Judaism and published a collection of syllabi pertaining to gender. As universities established women's studies programs, they were often highly influenced and connected to Jewish studies as well. [14] In 1997, Brandeis University established the Hadassah-Brandeis Institute, the first university-based research institution dedicated to Gender and Jewish studies. The institution aims to "develop fresh ways of thinking about Jews and gender worldwide by producing and promoting scholarly research and artistic projects." [15] The Hadassah-Brandeis Institute publishes books and journals, holds conferences, and provides funding for Gender and Jewish Studies scholarship. For example, the Nashim Journal is a bi-annual academic journal dedicated to the advancement of Gender and Jewish studies, was co-founded by the Hadassah-Brandeis Institute and the Schechter Institute of Jewish Studies in Jerusalem. [16] Additionally, this scholarship is not limited to the United States, or countries with historically large Jewish populations, with contributions being made from Jewish Studies departments at academic institutions across the globe. [17]
In addition, controversies over the role of women in Jewish denominations and the gender separation in Orthodox Judaism has drawn attention to gender roles, as constructed and regulated by religious institutions. For this reason, besides the academic attention, the liberal Jewish movements turn to gender and Judaism to reinforce their own mission and identity. Notably, the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College has established the Gottesman Chair in Gender and Judaism and operates Kolot — the Center for Jewish Women's and Gender Studies ", [18] the first such center established at a rabbinical seminary (1996).
Amidst ongoing debates over gender roles in Jewish denominations and the nuances of gender separation in Orthodox Judaism, the differentiation in modesty standards observed by Hasidic women offers insight into the complexities of religiously regulated gender norms. While strict modesty rules are upheld within the community, there is leniency in interactions with men perceived to adhere to liberal norms. This dynamic reflects broader discussions within Jewish denominations regarding the role of women and the impact of religious institutions on gender norms. Institutions like the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College's Gottesman Chair in Gender and Judaism and Kolot - the Center for Jewish Women's and Gender Studies, aim to address these complexities and reinforce the mission of liberal Jewish movements in promoting gender equality and inclusivity within religious contexts. [19]
Despite the progress made in women's economic participation in Israeli society, there persists a traditional division of household labor, indicating enduring gender perceptions. While women have advanced in the public sphere, their increased engagement hasn't led to a proportional shift in domestic responsibilities among spouses. This pattern holds even among employed women, who contribute significantly to the workforce, underscoring the resilience of traditional gender roles within the private sphere. This suggests a disparity between societal attitudes towards gender roles and the actual distribution of household tasks, warranting ongoing efforts to address gender inequalities in both public and private domains. [20]
The history Gender and Jewish studies began primarily through research on Jewish women and the role of women in Judaism and Jewish culture. [17]
Nonetheless, gender and Jewish studies also investigate the gender phenomena pertaining to men and masculinity. In addition, the subfield encompasses research on Jewish views on homosexuality and queer theory as these pertain to Jews and Judaism.
In historical terms, gender and Jewish studies span a broad range, from Biblical exegesis, research on rabbinic literature, Medieval Jewish culture, the importance of gender in Jewish responses to modernity, and gender identity politics in the contemporary period.
There is a growing subfield in the study of gender and Judaism, which sees the binaries of male and female as crucial constructs in Jewish thought. [28] [29] [30]
While the male/female dialectic first makes its appearance in the story of creation, the Talmud insists that the idea of male and female extends way beyond sex roles: "Rav Yehuda says that Rav says: Everything that the Holy One, Blessed be He, created in His world, He created male and female. [...] (Isaiah 27:1)". [31]
This dialectic takes on even greater theological significance in light of the Song of Songs, which has been traditionally interpreted as a metaphor for the relationship between God and the Nation of Israel, where the Nation of Israel is cast as feminine towards God, who is represented in the story by the male lover.
Other examples of topics in which the male/female dynamic is used metaphorically include: the relationship between Shabbat and the days of the week, [32] the relationship between the Oral and Written Law, the relationship between This World and the Next, the interplay between the legal and extra-legal aspects of Talmud (halacha and aggadah), [33] and the Jewish calendar, which makes use of both the sun (traditionally symbolic of the male force) and the moon (traditionally symbolic of the female force). [34]
There is also a movement among queer and gender nonconforming Jews to use Torah as a basis for questioning a gender binary. These conversations are more present in Reconstructionist and Reform Judaism, but they also appear in Orthodox Judaism. [35]
Judaism is an Abrahamic monotheistic ethnic religion that comprises the collective spiritual, cultural, and legal traditions of the Jewish people. Judaism evolved from Yahwism, an ancient Semitic religion of the late Bronze Age to early Iron Age, likely around the 6th/5th century BCE. Along with Samaritanism, to which it is closely related, Judaism is one of the two oldest Abrahamic religions.
The subject of homosexuality and Judaism dates back to the Torah. The book of Vayikra (Leviticus) is traditionally regarded as classifying sexual intercourse between males as a to'eivah that can be subject to capital punishment by the current Sanhedrin under halakha.
Women in Judaism have affected the course of Judaism over millenia. Their role is reflected in the Hebrew Bible, the Oral Law, by custom, and by cultural factors. Although the Hebrew Bible and rabbinic literature present various female role models, religious law treats women in specific ways. According to a 2017 study by the Pew Research Center, women account for 52% of the worldwide Jewish population.
Tzniut describes the character trait of modesty and discretion, as well as a group of Jewish laws pertaining to conduct. The concept is most important within Orthodox Judaism.
Judith Rebecca Hauptman is an American feminist Talmudic scholar.
Jewish feminism is a movement that seeks to make the religious, legal, and social status of Jewish women equal to that of Jewish men in Judaism. Feminist movements, with varying approaches and successes, have opened up within all major branches of the Jewish religion.
Rachel Adler is Professor Emerita of Modern Jewish Thought and Judaism and Gender at Hebrew Union College, at the Los Angeles campus.
Daniel Boyarin is an Israeli–American academic and historian of religion. Born in New Jersey, he holds dual United States and Israeli citizenship. He is the Hermann P. and Sophia Taubman Professor of Talmudic Culture in the Departments of Near Eastern Studies and Rhetoric at the University of California, Berkeley. He is married to Chava Boyarin, a lecturer in Hebrew at UC Berkeley. They have two sons. His brother, Jonathan Boyarin, is also a scholar, and the two have written together. He has defined himself as a "diasporic rabbinic Jew".
Lori Hope Lefkovitz, the Ruderman Professor of Jewish Studies, directs the Northeastern Humanities Center and the Jewish Studies Program at Northeastern University. She is the founding director of Kolot: The Center for Jewish Women and Gender Studies, the first such center at a rabbinical seminary.
The relationship between transgender people and religion varies widely around the world. Religions range from condemning any gender variance to honoring transgender people as religious leaders. Views within a single religion can vary considerably, as can views between different faiths.
In Judaism, especially in Orthodox Judaism, there are a number of settings in which men and women are kept separate in order to conform with various elements of halakha and to prevent men and women from mingling. Other streams of Judaism rarely separate genders any more than secular western society.
Orthodox Jewish feminism is a movement in Orthodox Judaism which seeks to further the cause of a more egalitarian approach to Jewish practice within the bounds of Jewish Law. The major organizations of this movement is the Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance (JOFA) in North America, and Women of the Wall (WOW) and its affiliates in Israel and internationally, known as The International Committee for Women of the Wall (ICWOW). In Israel, the leading Orthodox feminist organization is Kolech, founded by Dr. Chana Kehat. In Australia, there is one Orthodox partnership minyan, Shira Hadasha, in Melbourne.
The first openly lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender clergy in Judaism were ordained as rabbis and/or cantors in the second half of the 20th century.
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT) affirming denominations in Judaism are Jewish religious groups that welcome LGBT members and do not consider homosexuality to be a sin. They include both entire Jewish denominations, as well as individual synagogues. Some are composed mainly of non-LGBT members and also have specific programs to welcome LGBT people, while others are composed mainly of LGBT members.
Same-sex marriage in Judaism has been a subject of debate within Jewish denominations. The traditional view among Jews is to regard same-sex relationships as categorically forbidden by the Torah. This remains the current view of Orthodox Judaism.
Jewish traditions across different eras and regions devote considerable attention to sexuality. Sexuality is the subject of many narratives and laws in the Tanakh and rabbinic literature.
Tumtum is a term that appears in Jewish Rabbinic literature. It usually refers to a person whose sex is unknown because their genitalia are hidden, undeveloped, or difficult to determine.
Feminist Jewish ethics is an area of study in Jewish ethics and feminist philosophy.
This is a timeline of LGBT Jewish history, which consists of events at the intersection of Judaism and queer people.
Elizabeth (Liz) Bolton is a rabbi, feminist, and activist. Hired in 2013 by Reconstructionist synagogue Or Haneshamah, she is Ottawa’s first female and openly gay rabbi. In the late 1980’s, she led efforts to address the exclusion of women from the cantorate in Canada.
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