Environmental resource management

Last updated

The shrinking Aral Sea, an example of poor water resource management diverted for irrigation Aral Sea 1989-2008.jpg
The shrinking Aral Sea, an example of poor water resource management diverted for irrigation

Environmental resource management or environmental management is the management of the interaction and impact of human societies on the environment. It is not, as the phrase might suggest, the management of the environment itself. Environmental resources management aims to ensure that ecosystem services are protected and maintained for future human generations, and also maintain ecosystem integrity through considering ethical, economic, and scientific (ecological) variables. [1] Environmental resource management tries to identify factors between meeting needs and protecting resources. [2] It is thus linked to environmental protection, resource management, sustainability, integrated landscape management, natural resource management, fisheries management, forest management, wildlife management, environmental management systems, and others.

Contents

Significance

Environmental resource management is an issue of increasing concern, as reflected in its prevalence in several texts influencing global sociopolitical frameworks such as the Brundtland Commission's Our Common Future, [3] which highlighted the integrated nature of the environment and international development, and the Worldwatch Institute's annual State of the World reports.

The environment determines the nature of people, animals, plants, and places around the Earth, affecting behaviour, religion, culture and economic practices.

Scope

Improved agricultural practices such as these terraces in northwest Iowa can serve to preserve soil and improve water quality. TerracesBuffers.JPG
Improved agricultural practices such as these terraces in northwest Iowa can serve to preserve soil and improve water quality.

Environmental resource management can be viewed from a variety of perspectives. It involves the management of all components of the biophysical environment, both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic), and the relationships among all living species and their habitats. The environment also involves the relationships of the human environment, such as the social, cultural, and economic environment, with the biophysical environment. The essential aspects of environmental resource management are ethical, economical, social, and technological. These underlie principles and help make decisions.

The concept of environmental determinism, probabilism, and possibilism are significant in the concept of environmental resource management.

Environmental resource management covers many areas in science, including geography, biology, social sciences, political sciences, public policy, ecology, physics, chemistry, sociology, psychology, and physiology. Environmental resource management as a practice and discourse (across these areas) is also the object of study in the social sciences. [4] [5]

Aspects

Ethical

Environmental resource management strategies are intrinsically driven by conceptions of human-nature relationships. [6] Ethical aspects involve the cultural and social issues relating to the environment, and dealing with changes to it. "All human activities take place in the context of certain types of relationships between society and the bio-physical world (the rest of nature)," [7] and so, there is a great significance in understanding the ethical values of different groups around the world. Broadly speaking, two schools of thought exist in environmental ethics: Anthropocentrism and Ecocentrism, each influencing a broad spectrum of environmental resource management styles along a continuum. [6] These styles perceive "...different evidence, imperatives, and problems, and prescribe different solutions, strategies, technologies, roles for economic sectors, culture, governments, and ethics, etc." [7]

Anthropocentrism

Anthropocentrism, "an inclination to evaluate reality exclusively in terms of human values," [8] is an ethic reflected in the major interpretations of Western religions and the dominant economic paradigms of the industrialised world. [6] Anthropocentrism looks at nature as existing solely for the benefit of humans, and as a commodity to use for the good of humanity and to improve human quality of life. [9] [10] [11] Anthropocentric environmental resource management is therefore not the conservation of the environment solely for the environment's sake, but rather the conservation of the environment, and ecosystem structure, for humans' sake.

Ecocentrism

Ecocentrists believe in the intrinsic value of nature while maintaining that human beings must use and even exploit nature to survive and live. [12] It is this fine ethical line that ecocentrists navigate between fair use and abuse. [12] At an extreme of the ethical scale, ecocentrism includes philosophies such as ecofeminism and deep ecology, which evolved as a reaction to dominant anthropocentric paradigms. [6] "In its current form, it is an attempt to synthesize many old and some new philosophical attitudes about the relationship between nature and human activity, with particular emphasis on ethical, social, and spiritual aspects that have been downplayed in the dominant economic worldview." [13]

Economics

Main article: Economics

A water harvesting system collects rainwater from the Rock of Gibraltar into pipes that lead to tanks excavated inside the rock. Gibraltar East Side Water Catchments in 1992.jpg
A water harvesting system collects rainwater from the Rock of Gibraltar into pipes that lead to tanks excavated inside the rock.

The economy functions within and is dependent upon goods and services provided by natural ecosystems. [14] The role of the environment is recognized in both classical economics and neoclassical economics theories, yet the environment was a lower priority in economic policies from 1950 to 1980 due to emphasis from policy makers on economic growth. [14] With the prevalence of environmental problems, many economists embraced the notion that, "If environmental sustainability must coexist for economic sustainability, then the overall system must [permit] identification of an equilibrium between the environment and the economy." [15] As such, economic policy makers began to incorporate the functions of the natural environment – or natural capital – particularly as a sink for wastes and for the provision of raw materials and amenities. [16]

Debate continues among economists as to how to account for natural capital, specifically whether resources can be replaced through knowledge and technology, or whether the environment is a closed system that cannot be replenished and is finite. [17] Economic models influence environmental resource management, in that management policies reflect beliefs about natural capital scarcity. For someone who believes natural capital is infinite and easily substituted, environmental management is irrelevant to the economy. [6] For example, economic paradigms based on neoclassical models of closed economic systems are primarily concerned with resource scarcity and thus prescribe legalizing the environment as an economic externality for an environmental resource management strategy. [6] This approach has often been termed 'Command-and-control'. [6] Colby has identified trends in the development of economic paradigms, among them, a shift towards more ecological economics since the 1990s. [6]

Ecology

A diagram showing the juvenile fish bypass system, which allows young salmon and steelhead to safely pass the Rocky Reach Hydro Project in Washington Juvenile fish bypass.jpg
A diagram showing the juvenile fish bypass system, which allows young salmon and steelhead to safely pass the Rocky Reach Hydro Project in Washington
Fencing separates big game from vehicles along the Quebec Autoroute 73 in Canada. Cloture grande faune A73A.jpg
Fencing separates big game from vehicles along the Quebec Autoroute 73 in Canada.

There are many definitions of the field of science commonly called ecology. A typical one is "the branch of biology dealing with the relations and interactions between organisms and their environment, including other organisms." [18] "The pairing of significant uncertainty about the behaviour and response of ecological systems with urgent calls for near-term action constitutes a difficult reality, and a common lament" for many environmental resource managers. [19] Scientific analysis of the environment deals with several dimensions of ecological uncertainty. [20] These include: structural uncertainty resulting from the misidentification, or lack of information pertaining to the relationships between ecological variables; parameter uncertainty referring to "uncertainty associated with parameter values that are not known precisely but can be assessed and reported in terms of the likelihood…of experiencing a defined range of outcomes"; [21] and stochastic uncertainty stemming from chance or unrelated factors. [20] Adaptive management [22] [23] is considered a useful framework for dealing with situations of high levels of uncertainty [24] though it is not without its detractors. [25]

A common scientific concept and impetus behind environmental resource management is carrying capacity. Simply put, carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of organisms a particular resource can sustain. The concept of carrying capacity, whilst understood by many cultures over history, has its roots in Malthusian theory. An example is visible in the EU Water Framework Directive. However, "it is argued that Western scientific knowledge ... is often insufficient to deal with the full complexity of the interplay of variables in environmental resource management. [26] [27] These concerns have been recently addressed by a shift in environmental resource management approaches to incorporate different knowledge systems including traditional knowledge, [28] reflected in approaches such as adaptive co-management [29] [30] [31] community-based natural resource management [32] [33] and transitions management [34] among others. [28]

Sustainability

Sustainability in environmental resource management involves managing economic, social, and ecological systems both within and outside an organizational entity so it can sustain itself and the system it exists in. [35] [36] In context, sustainability implies that rather than competing for endless growth on a finite planet, development improves quality of life without necessarily consuming more resources. [37] Sustainably managing environmental resources requires organizational change that instills sustainability values that portrays these values outwardly from all levels and reinforces them to surrounding stakeholders. [35] [36] The result should be a symbiotic relationship between the sustaining organization, community, and environment.

Many drivers compel environmental resource management to take sustainability issues into account. Today's economic paradigms do not protect the natural environment, yet they deepen human dependency on biodiversity and ecosystem services. [38] Ecologically, massive environmental degradation [39] [40] and climate change [41] [42] threaten the stability of ecological systems that humanity depends on. [36] [43] Socially, an increasing gap between rich and poor and the global North–South divide denies many access to basic human needs, rights, and education, leading to further environmental destruction. [36] [43] [44] [45] The planet's unstable condition is caused by many anthropogenic sources. [41] As an exceptionally powerful contributing factor to social and environmental change, the modern organisation has the potential to apply environmental resource management with sustainability principles to achieve highly effective outcomes. [35] [36] To achieve sustainable development with environmental resource management an organisation should work within sustainability principles, including social and environmental accountability, long-term planning; a strong, shared vision; a holistic focus; devolved and consensus decision making; broad stakeholder engagement and justice; transparency measures; trust; and flexibility. [35] [36] [46]

Current paradigm shifts

To adjust to today's environment of quick social and ecological changes, some organizations have begun to experiment with new tools and concepts. [47] [48] Those that are more traditional and stick to hierarchical decision making have difficulty dealing with the demand for lateral decision making that supports effective participation. [47] Whether it be a matter of ethics or just strategic advantage organizations are internalizing sustainability principles. [48] [49] Some of the world's largest and most profitable corporations are shifting to sustainable environmental resource management: Ford, Toyota, BMW, Honda, Shell, Du Port, Sta toil, [50] Swiss Re, Hewlett-Packard, and Unilever, among others. [35] [36] An extensive study by the Boston Consulting Group reaching 1,560 business leaders from diverse regions, job positions, expertise in sustainability, industries, and sizes of organizations, revealed the many benefits of sustainable practice as well as its viability. [49]

It is important to note that though the sustainability of environmental resource management has improved, [35] [36] corporate sustainability, for one, has yet to reach the majority of global companies operating in the markets. [46] The three major barriers to preventing organizations from shifting towards sustainable practice with environmental resource management are not understanding what sustainability is; having difficulty modeling an economically viable case for the switch; and having a flawed execution plan, or a lack thereof. [49] Therefore, the most important part of shifting an organization to adopt sustainability in environmental resource management would be to create a shared vision and understanding of what sustainability is for that particular organization and to clarify the business case. [49]

Stakeholders

Public sector

A conservation project in North Carolina involving the search for bog turtles was conducted by United States Fish and Wildlife Service and the North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission and its volunteers. Southern Appalachian bog May 2010.jpg
A conservation project in North Carolina involving the search for bog turtles was conducted by United States Fish and Wildlife Service and the North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission and its volunteers.

The public sector comprises the general government sector plus all public corporations including the central bank. [51] In environmental resource management the public sector is responsible for administering natural resource management and implementing environmental protection legislation. [2] [52] The traditional role of the public sector in environmental resource management is to provide professional judgement through skilled technicians on behalf of the public. [47] With the increase of intractable environmental problems, the public sector has been led to examine alternative paradigms for managing environmental resources. [47] This has resulted in the public sector working collaboratively with other sectors (including other governments, private and civil) to encourage sustainable natural resource management behaviours. [52]

Private sector

The private sector comprises private corporations and non-profit institutions serving households. [53] The private sector's traditional role in environmental resource management is that of the recovery of natural resources. [54] Such private sector recovery groups include mining (minerals and petroleum), forestry and fishery organisations. [54] Environmental resource management undertaken by the private sectors varies dependent upon the resource type, that being renewable or non-renewable and private and common resources (also see Tragedy of the Commons). [54] Environmental managers from the private sector also need skills to manage collaboration within a dynamic social and political environment. [47]

Civil society

Civil society comprises associations in which societies voluntarily organise themselves and which represent a wide range of interests and ties. [55] These can include community-based organisations, indigenous peoples' organisations and non-government organisations (NGOs). [55] Functioning through strong public pressure, civil society can exercise their legal rights against the implementation of resource management plans, particularly land management plans. [47] The aim of civil society in environmental resource management is to be included in the decision-making process by means of public participation. [47] Public participation can be an effective strategy to invoke a sense of social responsibility of natural resources. [47]

Tools

As with all management functions, effective management tools, standards, and systems are required. An environmental management standard or system or protocol attempts to reduce environmental impact as measured by some objective criteria. The ISO 14001 standard is the most widely used standard for environmental risk management and is closely aligned to the European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). As a common auditing standard, the ISO 19011 standard explains how to combine this with quality management.

Other environmental management systems (EMS) tend to be based on the ISO 14001 standard and many extend it in various ways:

Other strategies exist that rely on making simple distinctions rather than building top-down management "systems" using performance audits and full cost accounting. For instance, Ecological Intelligent Design divides products into consumables, service products or durables and unsaleables – toxic products that no one should buy, or in many cases, do not realize they are buying. By eliminating the unsaleables from the comprehensive outcome of any purchase, better environmental resource management is achieved without systems.

Another example that diverges from top-down management is the implementation of community based co-management systems of governance. An example of this is community based subsistence fishing areas, such as is implemented in Ha'ena, Hawaii. [57] Community based systems of governance allow for the communities who most directly interact with the resource and who are most deeply impacted by the overexploitation of said resource to make the decisions regarding its management, thus empowering local communities and more effectively managing resources.

Recent successful cases have put forward the notion of integrated management. It shares a wider approach and stresses out the importance of interdisciplinary assessment. It is an interesting notion that might not be adaptable to all cases. [58]

Case Study: Kissidougou, Guinea (Fairhead, Leach)

Kissidougou, Guinea’s dry season brings about fires in the open grass fires which defoliate the few trees in the savanna. There are villages within this savanna surrounded by “islands” of forests, allowing for forts, hiding, rituals, protection from wind and fire, and shade for crops. According to scholars and researchers in the region during the late-19th and 20th centuries, [59] there was a steady decline in tree cover. This led to colonial Guinea’s implementation of policies, including the switch of upland to swamp farming; bush-fire control; protection of certain species and land; and tree planting in villages. These policies were carried out in the form of permits, fines, and military repression.

But, Kissidougou villagers claim their ancestors’ established these islands. Many maps and letters evidence France’s occupation of Guinea, as well as Kissidougou’s past landscape. During the 1780s to 1860s “the whole country [was] prairie.” James Fairhead and Melissa Leach, both environmental anthropologists at the University of Sussex, claim the state’s environmental analyses “casts into question the relationships between society, demography, and environment.” With this, they reformed the state’s narratives: Local land use can be both vegetation enriching and degrading; combined effect on resource management is greater than the sum of their parts; there is evidence of increased population correlating to an increase in forest cover. Fairhead and Leach support the enabling of policy and socioeconomic conditions in which local resource management conglomerates can act effectively. In Kissidougou, there is evidence that local powers and community efforts shaped the island forests that shape the savanna’s landscape.   [60]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable development</span> Mode of human development

Sustainable development is an organizing principle that aims to meet human development goals while also enabling natural systems to provide necessary natural resources and ecosystem services to humans. The desired result is a society where living conditions and resources meet human needs without undermining the planetary integrity and stability of the natural system. Sustainable development tries to find a balance between economic development, environmental protection, and social well-being. The Brundtland Report in 1987 defined sustainable development as "development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". The concept of sustainable development nowadays has a focus on economic development, social development and environmental protection for future generations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Natural capital</span> Worlds stock of natural resources

Natural capital is the world's stock of natural resources, which includes geology, soils, air, water and all living organisms. Some natural capital assets provide people with free goods and services, often called ecosystem services. All of these underpin our economy and society, and thus make human life possible.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental economics</span> Sub-field of economics

Environmental economics is a sub-field of economics concerned with environmental issues. It has become a widely studied subject due to growing environmental concerns in the twenty-first century. Environmental economics "undertakes theoretical or empirical studies of the economic effects of national or local environmental policies around the world. ... Particular issues include the costs and benefits of alternative environmental policies to deal with air pollution, water quality, toxic substances, solid waste, and global warming."

ISO 14000 is a family of standards by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) related to environmental management that exists to help organizations (a) minimize how their operations negatively affect the environment ; (b) comply with applicable laws, regulations, and other environmentally oriented requirements; and (c) continually improve in the above.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecological economics</span> Interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems

Ecological economics, bioeconomics, ecolonomy, eco-economics, or ecol-econ is both a transdisciplinary and an interdisciplinary field of academic research addressing the interdependence and coevolution of human economies and natural ecosystems, both intertemporally and spatially. By treating the economy as a subsystem of Earth's larger ecosystem, and by emphasizing the preservation of natural capital, the field of ecological economics is differentiated from environmental economics, which is the mainstream economic analysis of the environment. One survey of German economists found that ecological and environmental economics are different schools of economic thought, with ecological economists emphasizing strong sustainability and rejecting the proposition that physical (human-made) capital can substitute for natural capital.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to sustainable agriculture:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental sociology</span> Study of interactions between societies and their natural environments

Environmental sociology is the study of interactions between societies and their natural environment. The field emphasizes the social factors that influence environmental resource management and cause environmental issues, the processes by which these environmental problems are socially constructed and define as social issues, and societal responses to these problems.

Environmental policy is the commitment of an organization or government to the laws, regulations, and other policy mechanisms concerning environmental issues. These issues generally include air and water pollution, waste management, ecosystem management, maintenance of biodiversity, the management of natural resources, wildlife and endangered species. For example, concerning environmental policy, the implementation of an eco-energy-oriented policy at a global level to address the issues of global warming and climate changes could be addressed. Policies concerning energy or regulation of toxic substances including pesticides and many types of industrial waste are part of the topic of environmental policy. This policy can be deliberately taken to influence human activities and thereby prevent undesirable effects on the biophysical environment and natural resources, as well as to make sure that changes in the environment do not have unacceptable effects on humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecological resilience</span> Capacity of ecosystems to resist and recover from change

In ecology, resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to respond to a perturbation or disturbance by resisting damage and subsequently recovering. Such perturbations and disturbances can include stochastic events such as fires, flooding, windstorms, insect population explosions, and human activities such as deforestation, fracking of the ground for oil extraction, pesticide sprayed in soil, and the introduction of exotic plant or animal species. Disturbances of sufficient magnitude or duration can profoundly affect an ecosystem and may force an ecosystem to reach a threshold beyond which a different regime of processes and structures predominates. When such thresholds are associated with a critical or bifurcation point, these regime shifts may also be referred to as critical transitions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainability</span> Goal of people safely co-existing on Earth

Sustainability is a social goal for people to co-exist on Earth over a long time. Definitions of this term are disputed and have varied with literature, context, and time. Sustainability usually has three dimensions : environmental, economic, and social. Many definitions emphasize the environmental dimension. This can include addressing key environmental problems, including climate change and biodiversity loss. The idea of sustainability can guide decisions at the global, national, and individual levels. A related concept is that of sustainable development, and the terms are often used to mean the same thing. UNESCO distinguishes the two like this: "Sustainability is often thought of as a long-term goal, while sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it."

In 1997, a core set of six principles was established by ecological economist Robert Costanza for the sustainability governance of the oceans. These six principles became known as the "Lisbon Principles": together they provide basic guidelines for administering the use of common natural and social resources.

Environmental social science is the broad, transdisciplinary study of interrelations between humans and the natural environment. Environmental social scientists work within and between the fields of anthropology, communication studies, economics, geography, history, political science, psychology, and sociology; and also in the interdisciplinary fields of environmental studies, human ecology and political ecology, social epidemiology, among others.

A social-ecological system consists of 'a bio-geo-physical' unit and its associated social actors and institutions. Social-ecological systems are complex and adaptive and delimited by spatial or functional boundaries surrounding particular ecosystems and their context problems.

Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) are defined by the European Commission as having less than 250 employees, independent and with an annual turnover of no more than €50 million or annual balance sheet of €43 million.

Environmental certification is a form of environmental regulation and development where a company can voluntarily choose to comply with predefined processes or objectives set forth by the certification service. Most certification services have a logo which can be applied to products certified under their standards. This is seen as a form of corporate social responsibility allowing companies to address their obligation to minimise the harmful impacts to the environment by voluntarily following a set of externally set and measured objectives.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carl Folke</span> Swedish environmental scientist (born 1955)

Carl Folke, is a trans-disciplinary environmental scientist and a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He is a specialist in economics, resilience, and social-ecological systems, viewing such systems as intertwined and potentially unexpected in their interactions. As a framework for resource management, this perspective brings important insights to environmental management, urban planning, and climate adaptation. He suggests ways to improve our ability to understand complex social-ecological interactions, deal with change, and build resilience, often working at smaller scales as a step towards addressing larger scales.

Social accounting is the process of communicating the social and environmental effects of organizations' economic actions to particular interest groups within society and to society at large. Social Accounting is different from public interest accounting as well as from critical accounting.

Eco-restructuring is the implication for an ecologically sustainable economy. The principle of ecological modernization establishes the core literature of the functions that eco-restructuring has within a global regime. Eco-restructuring has an emphasis on the technological progressions within an ecological system. Government officials implement environmental policies to establish the industrial- ecological progressions that enable the motion of economic modernization. When establishing economic growth, policy makers focus on the progression towards a sustainable environment by establishing a framework of ecological engineering. Government funding is necessary when investing in efficient technologies to stimulate technological development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clive Spash</span> Ecological economist

Clive L. Spash is an ecological economist. He currently holds the Chair of Public Policy and Governance at Vienna University of Economics and Business, appointed in 2010. He is also Editor-in-Chief of the academic journal Environmental Values.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental conflict</span> Social conflict caused by environmental factors

Environmental conflicts, socio-environmental conflict or ecological distribution conflicts (EDCs) are social conflicts caused by environmental degradation or by unequal distribution of environmental resources. The Environmental Justice Atlas documented 3,100 environmental conflicts worldwide as of April 2020 and emphasised that many more conflicts remained undocumented.

References

  1. ↑ Pahl-Wost, C. (May 2007). "The implications of complexity for integrated resource management". Environmental Modelling and Software. 22 (5): 561–9. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.196.1136 . doi:10.1016/j.envsoft.2005.12.024.: 561 
  2. 1 2 Uehara, Thiago Hector Kanashiro; Otero, Gabriela Gomes Prol; Martins, Euder Glendes Andrade; Philippi Jr, Arlindo; Mantovani, Waldir (June 2010). "Pesquisas em gestão ambiental: análise de sua evolução na Universidade de São Paulo". Ambiente & Sociedade. 13 (1): 165–185. doi: 10.1590/s1414-753x2010000100011 . ISSN   1414-753X.
  3. ↑ World Commission on Environment and Development (2 August 1987). "Our Common Future, Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development". Development and International Co-operation: Environment. United Nations. General Assembly document A/42/427.
  4. ↑ Levy, David L (1997). "Environmental management as political sustainability". Organ. Environ. 10 (2): 126–147. doi:10.1177/0921810697102002. S2CID   41646694.
  5. ↑ Prasad, Pushkala; Elmes, Michael (2005). "In the name of the practical: unearthing the hegemony of pragmatics in the discourse of environmental management". Journal of Management Studies. 42 (4): 845–867. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6486.2005.00521.x. S2CID   143579908.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Colby, M.E. (September 1991). "Environmental management in development: the evolution of paradigms" (PDF). Ecological Economics. 3 (3): 193–213. doi:10.1016/0921-8009(91)90032-A.
  7. 1 2 Colby 1991 , p. 193
  8. ↑ "Anthropocentrism". WordNet Search – 3.1. Princeton University.
  9. ↑ White L (March 1967). "The historical roots of our ecologic crisis". Science. 155 (3767): 1203–7. Bibcode:1967Sci...155.1203W. doi:10.1126/science.155.3767.1203. PMID   17847526. S2CID   8076858.
  10. ↑ Berman, Morris (1981). The Reenchantment of the World . Cornell University Press. ISBN   978-0-8014-9225-9 . Retrieved 31 October 2013.
  11. ↑ Pepper, David; Perkins, John W.; Youngs, Martyn J. (1984). The Roots of Modern Environmentalism . Croom Helm. p.  145. ISBN   978-0-7099-2064-9.
  12. 1 2 Purser, Ronald E.; Montuori, Alfonso (1996). "Ecocentrism is in the Eye of the Beholder". The Academy of Management Review. 21 (3): 611–613. JSTOR   258993.
  13. ↑ Colby 1991 , p. 199
  14. 1 2 Thampapillai, Dodo J. (2002). Environmental economics: concepts, methods, and policies. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-553577-8.
  15. ↑ Thampapillai 2002 , p. 21
  16. ↑ Kneese, Allen V.; Ayres, Robert U.; D'Arge, Ralph C. (1970). Economics and the environment: a materials balance approach . Resources for the Future; distributed by the Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore. ISBN   978-0-8018-1215-6.
  17. ↑ Daly, Herman E.; Cobb, John B. Jr (1994). For The Common Good: Redirecting the Economy toward Community, the Environment, and a Sustainable Future. Beacon Press. ISBN   978-0-8070-4705-7.
  18. ↑ "Ecology". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
  19. ↑ Arvai, Gregory & Ohlson 2006 , p. 2413
  20. 1 2 Arvai, J.; Gregory, R.; Ohlson, D. (December 2006). "Deconstructing Adaptive Management: Criteria for Applications to Environmental Management". Ecological Applications. 16 (6): 2411–25. doi:10.1890/1051-0761(2006)016[2411:DAMCFA]2.0.CO;2. hdl: 1794/22080 . PMID   17205914.
  21. ↑ Arvai, Gregory & Ohlson 2006 , p. 2417
  22. ↑ Walters, Carl J. (1986). Adaptive management of renewable resources. Macmillan. ISBN   978-0-02-947970-4.
  23. ↑ United Nations Environment Programme (1978). Holling, C.S. (ed.). Adaptive environmental assessment and management. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis. ISBN   978-0-471-99632-3.
  24. ↑ Gunderson, Lance H.; Holling, C.S., eds. (2002). Panarchy Synopsis: Understanding Transformations in Human and Natural Systems. Island Press. ISBN   978-1-55963-330-7.
  25. ↑ Walters C, Holling CS (December 1990). "Large-scale management experiments and learning by doing". Ecology. 71 (6): 2060–8. Bibcode:1990Ecol...71.2060W. doi:10.2307/1938620. JSTOR   1938620. S2CID   41971470.
  26. ↑ Johannes RE (June 1998). "The case for data-less marine resource management: examples from tropical nearshore finfisheries". Trends Ecol. Evol. 13 (6): 243–6. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01384-6. PMID   21238285.
  27. ↑ Ludwig, D.; Mangel, M.; Haddad, B. (November 2001). "Ecology, conservation, and public policy". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 32: 481–571. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.32.081501.114116.
  28. 1 2 Raymond CM, Fazey I, Reed MS, Stringer LC, Robinson GM, Evely AC (August 2010). "Integrating local and scientific knowledge for environmental management". J. Environ. Manage. 91 (8): 1766–77. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.03.023. PMID   20413210.
  29. ↑ Folke, C.; Hahn, T.; Olsson, P.; Nordberg, J. (November 2005). "Adaptive governance of social-ecological systems". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 30: 441–473. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.464.445 . doi:10.1146/annurev.energy.30.050504.144511.
  30. ↑ Armitage, D.R.; Berkes, F.; Doubleday, N. (2007). Adaptive Co-Management: Collaboration, Learning, and Multi-Level Governance. Vancouver: UBC Press. ISBN   978-0-7748-1383-9.
  31. ↑ Berkes F (April 2009). "Evolution of co-management: role of knowledge generation, bridging organizations and social learning". J. Environ. Manage. 90 (5): 1692–702. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.12.001. PMID   19110363.
  32. ↑ Kellert, S.R.; Mehta, J.N.; Ebbin, S.A.; Lichtenfeld, L.L. (2000). "Community natural resource management: promise, rhetoric and reality". Society and Natural Resources. 13 (8): 705–715. doi:10.1080/089419200750035575. S2CID   219696057.
  33. ↑ Blaikie, P. (November 2006). "Is small really beautiful? Community-based natural resource management in Malawi and Botswana". World Development. 34 (11): 1942–57. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.11.023.
  34. ↑ Geels, F.W. (December 2002). "Technological transitions as evolutionary reconfiguration processes: a multi-level perspective and a case-study". Research Policy. 31 (8–9): 1257–74. doi:10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00062-8.
  35. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Avery, Gayle C.; Bergsteiner, Harald (2010). Honeybees and Locusts: The Business Case for Sustainable Leadership. Allen & Unwin. ISBN   978-1-74237-393-5.
  36. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Dunphy, Dexter Colboyd; Griffiths, Andrew; Ben, Suzanne (2007). Organizational Change for Corporate Sustainability: A Guide for Leaders and Change Agents of the Future (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. ISBN   9780415287401.
  37. ↑ Costanza, Robert (1991). Ecological Economics: The Science and Management of Sustainability. Columbia University Press. ISBN   978-0-231-07563-3.
  38. ↑ Guo Z, Zhang L, Li Y (2010). "Increased dependence of humans on ecosystem services and biodiversity". PLOS ONE. 5 (10): e13113. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...513113G. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013113 . PMC   2948508 . PMID   20957042.
  39. ↑ Costanza, Robert; Norton, Bryan G.; Haskell, Benjamin D. (1992). Ecosystem Health: New Goals for Environmental Management . Island Press. ISBN   978-1-55963-140-2.
  40. ↑ "Environment Management Group: Biodiversity". UNEP 1 2010. UNEP. 10 August 2011. Archived from the original on 15 September 2011.
  41. 1 2 IPCC AR4 SYR (2007). Core Writing Team; Pachauri, R.K; Reisinger, A. (eds.). Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC. pp. 1–22. ISBN   978-92-9169-122-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  42. ↑ Oreskes N (December 2004). "Beyond the ivory tower. The scientific consensus on climate change". Science. 306 (5702): 1686. doi: 10.1126/science.1103618 . PMID   15576594.
  43. 1 2 UNEP United Nations Environmental Program, 2002, "Integrating Environment and Development: 1972 – 2002", United Nations.
  44. ↑ Barkin, D. (1998). "Riqueza, Pobreza y Desarrollo Sustentable". Mexico: Editorial Jus y Centro de Ecologia y Desarrollo. Archived from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
  45. ↑ "Poverty Reduction and Equity". The World Bank. 10 September 2011.
  46. 1 2 UN Global Compact 2010, 'Blueprint for Corporate Sustainability Leadership', "UN Global Compact", UN Global Compact Office, Pp 2 – 12.
  47. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Selin. S.; Chavez. D. (March–April 1995). "Developing a Collaborative Model for Environmental Planning and Management". Environmental Management. 19 (2): 189–195. Bibcode:1995EnMan..19..189S. doi:10.1007/BF02471990. S2CID   154919241.
  48. 1 2 Daily, B.F.; Huang, S. (2001). "Achieving sustainability through attention to human resource factors in environmental management". International Journal of Operations & Production Management. 21 (12): 1539–52. doi:10.1108/01443570110410892.
  49. 1 2 3 4 Bern, M.; Townend, A.; Khayyam, Z.; Galapagos, B.; Reeves, M.; Hopkins, M.; Auschwitz, N. (2009). "The Business of Sustainability: Imperatives, Advantages, and Actions" (PDF). Boston Consulting Group Report. pp. 4–32. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 August 2017. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
  50. ↑ "Statoil Ranked No.1 Most Sustainable Oil & Gas producer". emisoft.com. Emisoft. 28 November 2016. Archived from the original on 29 November 2016. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
  51. ↑ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2006, Glossary of Statistical Terms: Public Sector. Retrieved 23 September 2011.
  52. 1 2 The State of Queensland: Department of Environment and Resource Management (DERM), 2011, What we do. Retrieved 23 September 2011.
  53. ↑ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2001, Glossary of Statistical Terms: Private Sector, Retrieved 23 September 2011.
  54. 1 2 3 Smith, V.L. (June 1968). "Economics of Production from Natural Resources". American Economic Review. 58 (3 Part 1): 409–413. JSTOR   1813767.
  55. 1 2 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2007, Glossary of Statistical Terms: Civil Society Organisations. Retrieved 23 September 2011.
  56. ↑ "Green Dragon Environmental Standard". Groundwork UK. Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2011.
  57. ↑ "Fisheries".
  58. ↑ Billé, R. (2008). "Integrated Coastal Zone Management: four entrenched illusions". S.A.P.I.EN.S. 1 (2).
  59. ↑ Chevalier, “Rapport sur les nouvelles recherches sur les plantes a caouchouc de la Guinee Francaise,” 1G276 (Dakar: Archives du Senegal, 1909)
  60. ↑ Fairhead, J. and Leach, M., 1996. Misreading the African landscape: society and ecology in a forest-savanna mosaic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.