Mood swing

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Graphical comparison of mood swings, compared with bipolar disorder and cyclothymia Bipolar mood shifts.png
Graphical comparison of mood swings, compared with bipolar disorder and cyclothymia

A mood swing is an extreme or sudden change of mood. Such changes can play a positive or a disruptive part in promoting problem solving and in producing flexible forward planning. [1] When mood swings are severe, they may be categorized as part of a mental illness, such as bipolar disorder, where erratic and disruptive mood swings are a defining feature. [2]

Contents

To determine mental health problems, people usually use charting with papers, interviews, or smartphone to track their mood/affect/emotion. [3] [4] Furthermore, mood swings do not just fluctuate between mania and depression, but in some conditions, involve anxiety. [5] [6]

Terminology

Definitions of the terms mood swings, mood instability, affective lability, or emotional lability are commonly similar, which describe fluctuating or oscillating of mood and emotions. But each has unique characteristics that are used to describe specific phenomena or patterns of oscillation. [7] [8] Different from emotions or affect, [9] mood is associated with emotional responses without knowing the reason (being unaware). [10] [11]

The dynamics of mood, mood patterns for long times are commonly erratic, [12] labile [13] or instable, also known as euthymic. [14] Although the term of mood swing is unspecific, it may be used to describe a pattern where mood goes down from positive to negative valency immediately (without delay in baseline) at specific periods. [15] And also generally have aperiodic patterns. [16] [17] This is because mood dynamics are influenced by various factors which can magnify or lessen fluctuations, [18] such as when expectations become reality or not. [19] Other terms for describing patterns are episodic, periodic, cyclothymia, rapid cycling, mixed states, short episodes, soft spectrum, [20] diurnal variation, etc., although the definition of each term may be unclear. [21]

Overview

Speed and extent

Mood swings can happen any time at any place, varying from the microscopic to the wild oscillations of bipolar disorder, [22] so that a continuum can be traced from normal struggles around self-esteem, through cyclothymia, up to a depressive disease. [23] However, most people's mood swings remain in the mild to moderate range of emotional ups and downs. [24] The duration of bipolar mood swings also varies. They may last a few hours – ultrarapid – or extend over days – ultradian: clinicians maintain that only when four continuous days of hypomania, or seven days of mania, occur, is a diagnosis of bipolar disorder justified. [25] In such cases, mood swings can extend over several days, even weeks; these episodes may consist of rapid alternation between feelings of depression and euphoria. [26]

Characteristics

People with high energy levels National Marathon IMG 1567 (5563108196).jpg
People with high energy levels
Person with low spirited mood Chronic fatigue syndrome.JPG
Person with low spirited mood
  1. Mood swings in cyclothymia: Mood swings occur episodically and aperiodic within 2 years or more at a moderate degree and frequently. [39] Characterized by coexisting with anxiety, persistence, rapid shift, intense, impulsive, [40] heightened by sensitivity and reactivity to external stimuli. [41]
  2. Mood swings in bipolar II: Episodic, [42] hypomanic (severe degree) episodes occur continuously for 4 days, [30] depression episodes for weeks, [43] and sometimes erratic episodes at moderate degree in between episodes. [44]
  3. Mood swings in bipolar I: Episodic, [42] manic episodes (severe degree) occur continuously for 7 days, [30] depressive episodes for weeks, [45] [46] and sometimes erratic episodes at moderate degree in between episodes. [30] Alterations in bipolar I and II can be rapid cyclic, which means changes of mood happen 4 times or more within a year. [47] Symptoms of manic and hypomanic episodes are similar between bipolar I and bipolar II, just different in degree of intensity. [48]
  4. Mood swings in Premenstrual symptoms (PMS): Episodically at mild to severe degree in the menses period, occur gradually or rapidly, [49] start 7 days before and decrease at the onset of menses. [50] Characterized by angry outbursts, depression, anxiety, confusion, irritability or social withdrawal. [51]
  5. Mood swings in borderline personality disorder (BPD): Mood changes erratically with episodic mood swings. [52] Mood swings fluctuate in rapid shifts for hours or days, not persistent, sensitive and heightened negative mood (e.g. irritability) by external stimuli. [53] [54] Mood appears in the form of high intensity of irritability, [55] [56] anxiety, [57] and moderate degree depression (characterized by hostility, anger towards self, loneliness, isolation, related with relationships, emptiness or boredom). [58] [59]
  6. Mood swings in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) : Mood changes erratically and mood swings occur episodically, sometimes several times a day in rapid shifts. [60] [61] Characterized by a mild to moderate degree of irritability, [62] related to the environment, impulsiveness (impatience to get rewards). [63] In adult ADHD, high mood appears as excitement and low mood appears as boredom. [60]
  7. Mood swings in schizophrenia: Although schizophrenia has flat emotions, [64] a study in 2021 based on ALS-SF measures, Margrethe Collier et al., found that the score pattern of schizophrenia is similar to bipolar I. [65] The alteration being related to delusions or hallucinations, [66] mood changes that occur internally may be difficult to express externally (blunt affect), [67] and heightened by external stimuli. [68]
  8. Mood swings in major depressive disorder (MDD): Various mood patterns, [69] and mood changes erratically. [37] Mood swings occur episodically and fluctuate in moderate high mood and severe low mood. [70] [71] Characterized by having high negative affect (bad mood) most of the time, particularly in melancholic subtype. [72] And also positive diurnal variation mood (bad mood in the morning, good mood in the evening), [73] sensitivity to negative stimulation and mixed symptoms in some people, etc. [74] [75]
  9. Mood swings in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Mood changes erratically [76] with episodic mood swings rising in the period of recovery process. [77] [78] Characterized by temporary fluctuations in negative affect (anxiety, irritability, shame, guilt) and self-esteem, reactive to environmental reminders, [79] difficulty to control emotions, [80] hyperarousal symptoms, etc. [81] [82]

Causes

There can be many different causes for mood swings. Some mood swings can be classified as normal/healthy reactions, such as grief processing, adverse effects of substances/drugs, or a result of sleep deprivation. Mood swings can also be a sign of psychiatric illnesses in the absence of external triggers or stressors.

Changes in a person's energy level, sleep patterns, self-esteem, sexual function, concentration, drug or alcohol use can be signs of an oncoming mood disorder. [83]

Other major causes of mood swings (besides bipolar disorder and major depression) include diseases/disorders which interfere with nervous system function. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), epilepsy, [84] and autism spectrum are three such examples. [85] [86]

The hyperactivity sometimes accompanied by inattentiveness, impulsiveness, and forgetfulness are cardinal symptoms associated with ADHD. As a result, ADHD is known to bring about usually short-lived (though sometimes dramatic) mood swings. The communication difficulties associated with autism, and the associated changes in neurochemistry, are also known to cause autistic fits (autistic mood swings). [87] The seizures associated with epilepsy involve changes in the brain's electrical firing, and thus may also bring about striking and dramatic mood swings. [84] If the mood swing is not associated with a mood disorder, treatments are harder to assign. Most commonly, however, mood swings are the result of dealing with stressful and/or unexpected situations in daily life.

Degenerative diseases of the human central nervous system such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, and Huntington's disease may also produce mood swings. [88] Celiac disease can also affect the nervous system and mood swings can appear. [89]

Not eating on time can contribute, or eating too much sugar, can cause fluctuations in blood sugar, which can cause mood swings. [90] [91]

Brain chemistry

If a person has an abnormal level of one or several of certain neurotransmitters (NTs) in their brain, it may result in having mood swings or a mood disorder. [92] Serotonin is one such neurotransmitter that is involved with sleep, moods, and emotional states. A slight imbalance of this NT could result in depression. Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter that is involved with learning, memory, and physical arousal. Like serotonin, an imbalance of norepinephrine may also result in depression. [93]

List of conditions known to cause mood swings

Treatment

It's part of human nature's mood going up and down caused by various factors. [171] Individual strength, [172] coping skill or adaptation ability, [173] social support [174] or another recovery model might determine whether mood swings will create disruption in life or not. [175] [176]

Cognitive behavioral therapy recommends using emotional dampeners to break the self-reinforcing tendencies of either manic or depressive mood swings. [177] Exercise, treats, seeking out small (and easily attainable) triumphs, and using vicarious distractions like reading or watching TV, are among the techniques found to be regularly used by people in breaking depressive swings. [178] Learning to bring oneself down from grandiose states of mind, or up from exaggerated shame states, is part of taking a proactive approach to managing one's own moods and varying sense of self-esteem. [179]

Behavioral activation is a component of CBT that can break the cycle (depression leads to inactivity, inactivity leads to depression). [180] This may rely on individual strengths to "cold start" the reward system. [181]

Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT): Another manifestation of mood swing is irritability, which can lead to elation, anger or aggression. [182] DBT has a lot of coping skills that can be used for emotion dysregulation, such as mindfulness with the "wise mind" [183] or emotion regulation with opposite action. [184] [185]

Emotion regulation therapy (ERT) has a package of mindful emotion regulation skills (e.g., attention regulation skills, metacognitive regulation skills, etc.) that can be handy to have when mood swings happen. [186]

Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy can be used to regulate life rhythm when mood swings happen frequently and disrupt the rhythm of life. [187] Episodes of mood disorder often liberate people from daily routines by making a mess of sleep schedules, social interaction, [188] [189] or work and causing irregular circadian rhythms. [190]

Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) has a function to increase psychological flexibility by learning to assess present experience or be mindful, accept everything internally or externally, commit action to move toward personal recovery, etc. [191]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bipolar disorder</span> Mental disorder that causes periods of depression and abnormally elevated mood

Bipolar disorder, previously known as manic depression or manic depressive disorder, is a mental disorder characterized by periods of depression and periods of abnormally elevated mood that each last from days to weeks. If the elevated mood is severe or associated with psychosis, it is called mania; if it is less severe and does not significantly affect functioning, it is called hypomania. During mania, an individual behaves or feels abnormally energetic, happy, or irritable, and they often make impulsive decisions with little regard for the consequences; there is usually also a reduced need for sleep during manic phases. During periods of depression, the individual may experience crying, have a negative outlook on life, and demonstrate poor eye contact with others. The risk of suicide is high; over a period of 20 years, 6% of those with bipolar disorder died by suicide, while 30–40% engaged in self-harm. Other mental health issues, such as anxiety disorders and substance use disorders, are commonly associated with bipolar disorder. The global prevalence of bipolar disorder is estimated to be between 1-5% of the world's popluation.

Bipolar I disorder is a type of bipolar spectrum disorder characterized by the occurrence of at least one manic episode, with or without mixed or psychotic features. Most people also, at other times, have one or more depressive episodes. Typically, these manic episodes can last at least 7 days for most of each day to the extent that the individual may need medical attention, while the depressive episodes last at least 2 weeks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mood disorder</span> Mental disorder affecting the mood of an individual, over a long period of time

A mood disorder, also known as an affective disorder, is any of a group of conditions of mental and behavioral disorder where the main underlying characteristic is a disturbance in the person's mood. The classification is in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and International Classification of Diseases (ICD).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Borderline personality disorder</span> Personality disorder of emotional instability

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a personality disorder characterized by a pervasive, long-term pattern of significant interpersonal relationship instability, a distorted sense of self, and intense emotional responses. People diagnosed with BPD frequently exhibit self-harming behaviours and engage in risky activities, primarily due to challenges regulating emotional states to a healthy, stable baseline. Symptoms such as dissociation, a pervasive sense of emptiness, and an acute fear of abandonment are prevalent among those affected.

Schizoaffective disorder is a mental disorder characterized by symptoms of both schizophrenia (psychosis) and a mood disorder - either bipolar disorder or depression. The main diagnostic criterion is the presence of psychotic symptoms for at least two weeks without prominent mood symptoms. Common symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech and thinking, as well as mood episodes. Schizoaffective disorder can often be misdiagnosed when the correct diagnosis may be psychotic depression, bipolar I disorder, schizophreniform disorder, or schizophrenia. This is a problem as treatment and prognosis differ greatly for most of these diagnoses. Many people with schizoaffective disorder have other mental disorders including anxiety disorders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dialectical behavior therapy</span> Psychotherapy for emotional dysregulation

Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) is an evidence-based psychotherapy that began with efforts to treat personality disorders and interpersonal conflicts. Evidence suggests that DBT can be useful in treating mood disorders and suicidal ideation as well as for changing behavioral patterns such as self-harm and substance use. DBT evolved into a process in which the therapist and client work with acceptance and change-oriented strategies and ultimately balance and synthesize them—comparable to the philosophical dialectical process of thesis and antithesis, followed by synthesis.

Child psychopathology refers to the scientific study of mental disorders in children and adolescents. Oppositional defiant disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and autism spectrum disorder are examples of psychopathology that are typically first diagnosed during childhood. Mental health providers who work with children and adolescents are informed by research in developmental psychology, clinical child psychology, and family systems. Lists of child and adult mental disorders can be found in the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th Edition (ICD-10), published by the World Health Organization (WHO) and in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). In addition, the Diagnostic Classification of Mental Health and Developmental Disorders of Infancy and Early Childhood is used in assessing mental health and developmental disorders in children up to age five.

In medicine and psychology, emotional lability is a sign or symptom typified by exaggerated changes in mood or affect in quick succession. Sometimes the emotions expressed outwardly are very different from how the person feels on the inside. These strong emotions can be a disproportionate response to something that happened, but other times there might be no trigger at all. The person experiencing emotional lability usually feels like they do not have control over their emotions. For example, someone might cry uncontrollably in response to any strong emotion even if they do not feel sad or unhappy.

Irritability is the excitatory ability that living organisms have to respond to changes in their environment. The term is used for both the physiological reaction to stimuli and for the pathological, abnormal or excessive sensitivity to stimuli.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emotional detachment</span> Inability and/or disinterest in emotionally connecting to others

In psychology, emotional detachment, also known as emotional blunting, is a condition or state in which a person lacks emotional connectivity to others, whether due to an unwanted circumstance or as a positive means to cope with anxiety. Such a coping strategy, also known as emotion-focused coping, is used when avoiding certain situations that might trigger anxiety. It refers to the evasion of emotional connections. Emotional detachment may be a temporary reaction to a stressful situation, or a chronic condition such as depersonalization-derealization disorder. It may also be caused by certain antidepressants. Emotional blunting, also known as reduced affect display, is one of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia.

Emotional dysregulation is characterized by an inability to flexibly respond to and manage emotional states, resulting in intense and prolonged emotional reactions that deviate from social norms, given the nature of the environmental stimuli encountered. Such reactions not only deviate from accepted social norms but also surpass what is informally deemed appropriate or proportional to the encountered stimuli.

A spectrum disorder is a disorder that includes a range of linked conditions, sometimes also extending to include singular symptoms and traits. The different elements of a spectrum either have a similar appearance or are thought to be caused by the same underlying mechanism. In either case, a spectrum approach is taken because there appears to be "not a unitary disorder but rather a syndrome composed of subgroups". The spectrum may represent a range of severity, comprising relatively "severe" mental disorders through to relatively "mild and nonclinical deficits".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bipolar disorder in children</span>

Bipolar disorder in children, or pediatric bipolar disorder (PBD), is a rare mental disorder in children and adolescents. The diagnosis of bipolar disorder in children has been heavily debated for many reasons including the potential harmful effects of adult bipolar medication use for children. PBD is similar to bipolar disorder (BD) in adults, and has been proposed as an explanation for periods of extreme shifts in mood called mood episodes. These shifts alternate between periods of depressed or irritable moods and periods of abnormally elevated moods called manic or hypomanic episodes. Mixed mood episodes can occur when a child or adolescent with PBD experiences depressive and manic symptoms simultaneously. Mood episodes of children and adolescents with PBD are different from general shifts in mood experienced by children and adolescents because mood episodes last for long periods of time and cause severe disruptions to an individual's life. There are three known forms of PBD: Bipolar I, Bipolar II, and Bipolar Not Otherwise Specified (NOS). The average age of onset of PBD remains unclear, but reported age of onset ranges from 5 years of age to 19 years of age. PBD is typically more severe and has a poorer prognosis than bipolar disorder with onset in late-adolescence or adulthood.

Bipolar II disorder (BP-II) is a mood disorder on the bipolar spectrum, characterized by at least one episode of hypomania and at least one episode of major depression. Diagnosis for BP-II requires that the individual must never have experienced a full manic episode. Otherwise, one manic episode meets the criteria for bipolar I disorder (BP-I).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grandiose delusions</span> Subtype of delusion

Grandiose delusions (GDs), also known as delusions of grandeur or expansive delusions, are a subtype of delusion characterized by the extraordinary belief that one is famous, omnipotent, wealthy, or otherwise very powerful or of a high status. Grandiose delusions often have a religious, science fictional, or supernatural theme. Examples include the extraordinary belief that one is a deity or celebrity, or that one possesses fantastical talents, accomplishments, or superpowers.

Bipolar disorder not otherwise specified (BD-NOS) is a diagnosis for bipolar disorder (BD) when it does not fall within the other established sub-types. Bipolar disorder NOS is sometimes referred to as subthreshold bipolar disorder.

Cyclothymia, also known as cyclothymic disorder, psychothemia / psychothymia, bipolar III, affective personality disorder and cyclothymic personality disorder, is a mental and behavioural disorder that involves numerous periods of symptoms of depression and periods of symptoms of elevated mood. These symptoms, however, are not sufficient to indicate a major depressive episode or a manic episode. Symptoms must last for more than one year in children and two years in adults.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder</span> Medical condition

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (DMDD) is a mental disorder in children and adolescents characterized by a persistently irritable or angry mood and frequent temper outbursts that are disproportionate to the situation and significantly more severe than the typical reaction of same-aged peers. DMDD was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) as a type of depressive disorder diagnosis for youths. The symptoms of DMDD resemble many other disorders, thus a differential includes attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), anxiety disorders, and childhood bipolar disorder, intermittent explosive disorder (IED), major depressive disorder (MDD), and conduct disorder.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sleep and emotions</span>

Emotions play a key role in overall mental health, and sleep plays a crucial role in maintaining the optimal homeostasis of emotional functioning. Deficient sleep, both in the form of sleep deprivation and restriction, adversely impacts emotion generation, emotion regulation, and emotional expression.

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a personality disorder characterized by a pervasive, long-term pattern of significant interpersonal relationship instability, a distorted sense of self, and intense emotional responses, which can be misdiagnosed. Misdiagnosis may involve erroneously assigning a BPD diagnosis to individuals not meeting the specific criteria or attributing an incorrect alternate diagnosis in cases where BPD is the accurate condition.

References

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  2. ↑ "BBC Science – When does your mental health become a problem?". BBC Science. 19 April 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
  3. ↑ Faurholt-Jepsen, Maria; Munkholm, Klaus; Frost, Mads; Bardram, Jakob E.; Kessing, Lars Vedel (15 January 2016). "Electronic self-monitoring of mood using IT platforms in adult patients with bipolar disorder: A systematic review of the validity and evidence". BMC Psychiatry. 16: 7. doi: 10.1186/s12888-016-0713-0 . ISSN   1471-244X. PMC   4714425 . PMID   26769120. Electronic self-monitoring of mood was considered valid compared to clinical rating scales for depression in six out of six studies, and in two out of seven studies compared to clinical rating scales for mania.
  4. ↑ Trull, Timothy J.; Solhan, Marika B.; Tragesser, Sarah L.; Jahng, Seungmin; Wood, Phillip K.; Piasecki, Thomas M.; Watson, David (2008). "Affective instability: Measuring a core feature of borderline personality disorder with ecological momentary assessment". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 117 (3): 647–661. doi:10.1037/a0012532. ISSN   1939-1846. PMID   18729616. Measuring and characterizing the experience of affective instability have proved challenging, however. Traditional measures of affective instability rely on respondents' retrospective recall and subjective assess-ment of affective variability or reactivity on interview or questionnaire items.
  5. 1 2 Harvey, Philip D.; Greenberg, Barbara R.; Serper, Mark R. (1989). "The affective lability scales: Development, reliability, and validity". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 45 (5): 786–793. doi:10.1002/1097-4679(198909)45:5<786::AID-JCLP2270450515>3.0.CO;2-P. PMID   2808736. A self-report measure of changeable affect was developed, with a goal of identification of patterns of instability in mood. Scales measuring lability in anxiety, depression, anger, and hypomania, and labile shifts between anxiety and depression and hypomania and depression were constructed. These scales were then evaluated for internal consistency, retest reliability, score stability ...
  6. ↑ Contardi, Anna; Imperatori, Claudio; Amati, Italia; Balsamo, Michela; Innamorati, Marco (2018). "Assessment of Affect Lability: Psychometric Properties of the ALS-18". Frontiers in Psychology. 9: 427. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00427 . ISSN   1664-1078. PMC   5885065 . PMID   29651267. To measure affect lability, Harvey et al. (1989) developed the Affective Lability Scales (ALS), a 58-item questionnaire measuring changeability among euthymia and four affect states (i.e., depression, elation, anger, and anxiety).
  7. ↑ Ketal, R. (1975). "Affect, mood, emotion, and feeling: semantic considerations". American Journal of Psychiatry. 132 (11): 1215–1217. doi:10.1176/ajp.132.11.1215. ISSN   0002-953X. PMID   1166902. ...the use and definitions of the terms "affect," "mood," "emotion," and "feeling" in some classical and contemporary works of psychiatry and psychology. He concludes that these words refer to distinct pscychological phenomena and suggests that they be used clearly and carefully to facilitate communication about emotions.
  8. ↑ Broome, M. R.; Saunders, K. E. A.; Harrison, P. J.; Marwaha, S. (2015). "Mood instability: significance, definition and measurement". The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science. 207 (4): 283–285. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.114.158543. ISSN   1472-1465. PMC   4589661 . PMID   26429679. The literature spans psychiatry, psychology and neuroscience, and multiple terms are used to describe the same, or related phenomena, including affective instability, emotional dysregulation, mood swings, emotional impulsiveness and affective lability. Collating the main overlapping dimensions, definitions, and their measurement scales, a recent systematic review proposed that mood instability is 'rapid oscillations of intense affect, with a difficulty in regulating these oscillations or their behavioural consequences'.
  9. 1 2 Manjunatha, Narayana; Khess, Christoday Raja Jayant; Ram, Dushad (2009). "The conceptualization of terms: 'Mood' and 'affect' in academic trainees of mental health". Indian Journal of Psychiatry. 51 (4): 285–288. doi: 10.4103/0019-5545.58295 . ISSN   1998-3794. PMC   2802377 . PMID   20048455. One would conclude from the above italic sentences of Fish that affect is a sudden exacerbation of emotion, and mood is also the emotional state prevailing at any given time, in other words, both mood and affect are short-term emotional tone (However, these confusing lines are deleted in the new edition of Fish's clinical psychopathology).
  10. ↑ "APA Dictionary of Psychology". dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved 18 August 2023. Moods differ from emotions in lacking an object; for example, the emotion of anger can be aroused by an insult, but an angry mood may arise when one does not know what one is angry about or what elicited the anger.
  11. ↑ Leaberry, Kirsten D.; Walerius, Danielle M.; Rosen, Paul J.; Fogleman, Nicholas D. (2020), "Emotional Lability", Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1319–1329, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_510, ISBN   978-3-319-24610-9, S2CID   241582879 , retrieved 18 August 2023." Previous literature suggests that mood often has a greater duration and is associated with an internal state value, whereas emotions are sudden and intense and are associated with greater environmental information value (Larsen et al. 2000).
  12. ↑ Kahmann, Daan (2022) Emotion dynamics in Tibetan monks and healthy Westerners. Bachelor's Thesis, Artificial Intelligence.university of groningen."Emotions can be very turbulent and are constantly changing."
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  14. ↑ Fava, Giovanni A.; Bech, Per (27 November 2015). "The Concept of Euthymia". Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics. 85 (1): 1–5. doi: 10.1159/000441244 . ISSN   0033-3190. PMID   26610048. S2CID   29087528. When a patient, in the longitudinal course of mood disturbances, no longer meets the threshold of a disorder such as depression or mania, as assessed by categorical methods resulting in diagnostic criteria or by cutoff points in the dimensional measurement of rating scales, he or she is often labeled as euthymic.
  15. ↑ "APA Dictionary of Psychology". dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved 1 September 2023. a nonspecific term for any oscillation in mood, particularly between feelings of happiness and sadness.
  16. ↑ Katerndahl, David; Ferrer, Robert; Best, Rick; Wang, Chen-Pin (2007). "Dynamic patterns in mood among newly diagnosed patients with major depressive episode or panic disorder and normal controls". Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 9 (3): 183–187. doi:10.4088/pcc.v09n0303. ISSN   1523-5998. PMC   1911176 . PMID   17632650. Complexity of symptoms or behaviors in an individual is often characterized by the dynamics of the individual's longitudinal patterns. While periodic/linear temporal patterns are predictable in both trajectory and pattern, chaotic patterns are predictable in pattern only. Random dynamics are predictable in neither trajectory nor pattern.
  17. ↑ Cowdry, R. W.; Gardner, D. L.; O'Leary, K. M.; Leibenluft, E.; Rubinow, D. R. (1991). "Mood variability: a study of four groups". American Journal of Psychiatry. 148 (11): 1505–1511. doi:10.1176/ajp.148.11.1505. ISSN   0002-953X. PMID   1928464. The visual analog scale can capture patterns of mood and mood variability thought to be typical of these diagnostic groups. Mood disorders differ not only in the degree of abnormal mood but also in the pattern of mood variability, suggesting that mechanisms regulating mood stability may differ from those regulating overall mood state.
  18. ↑ Pessiglione, Mathias; Heerema, Roeland; Daunizeau, Jean; Vinckier, Fabien (1 April 2023). "Origins and consequences of mood flexibility: a computational perspective". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 147: 105084. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105084 . ISSN   0149-7634. PMID   36764635. S2CID   256666316. We typically have little control over fluctuations between episodes of good and bad mood. In most cases, we also have little understanding of the causal factors driving our mood fluctuations, contrary to emotional reactions that are circumscribed to a specific trigger and limited to a short duration.
  19. ↑ Eldar, Eran; Rutledge, Robb B.; Dolan, Raymond J.; Niv, Yael (1 January 2016). "Mood as Representation of Momentum". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 20 (1): 15–24. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2015.07.010. ISSN   1364-6613. PMC   4703769 . PMID   26545853. The main conclusion of the study was that happiness depends not on how well things are going (in terms of cumulative earnings) but whether they are going better than expected.
  20. ↑ Perugi, Giulio; Akiskal, Hagop S. (2002). "The soft bipolar spectrum redefined: focus on the cyclothymic, anxious-sensitive, impulse-dyscontrol, and binge-eating connection in bipolar II and related conditions". The Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 25 (4): 713–737. doi:10.1016/s0193-953x(02)00023-0. ISSN   0193-953X. PMID   12462857. The bipolar II spectrum represents the most common phenotype of bipolarity. Numerous studies indicate that in clinical settings this soft spectrum might be as common--if not more common than--major depressive disorders.
  21. ↑ Bowen, Rudy; Clark, Malin; Baetz, Marilyn (1 March 2004). "Mood swings in patients with anxiety disorders compared with normal controls". Journal of Affective Disorders. 78 (3): 185–192. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(02)00304-X. ISSN   0165-0327. PMID   15013242. Difficulties with measurement, and unclear definitions for terms like cyclothymia, rapid cycling, mixed states, short episodes, and soft spectrum have contributed to the uncertainty (Akiskal et al., 2000, Blacker and Tsuang, 1992, Cassano et al., 1999, Ghaemi et al., 2001).
  22. ↑ Sigmund Freud, Civilization, Society and Religion (PFL 12) p. 164
  23. ↑ Otto Fenichel, The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis (1946) p. 406
  24. ↑ Daniel Goleman (1995). Emotional Intelligence: Why it Can Matter More Than IQ . Bloomsbury Publishing PLC. p.  57. ISBN   978-0747528302. ASIN   0747528306.
  25. ↑ S, Nassir Ghaemi, Mood Disorder (2007) p. 243-4
  26. ↑ Hockenbury, Don and Sandra (2011). Discovering Psychology Fifth Edition. New York, NY: Worth Publishers. p. 549. ISBN   978-1-4292-1650-0.
  27. ↑ Lischetzke, Tanja (2014), "Mood", in Michalos, Alex C. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 4115–4119, doi:10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_1842, ISBN   978-94-007-0753-5 , retrieved 31 August 2023."Moods are affective states that are diffuse and unfocused, that is, not directed toward a specific object. They are continually present (tonic) and shape the background of our moment-moment experience, but fluctuate over time."
  28. ↑ CAMH Bipolar Clinic Staff(2013)."Bipolar disorder:an information guide".camph:Centre for Addiction and Mental Health.www.camh.ca."Everyone has ups and downs in mood. Feeling happy, sad and angry is normal...Their moods may have nothing to do with things going on in their lives."
  29. ↑ Janiri, Delfina; Conte, Eliana; De Luca, Ilaria; Simone, Maria Velia; Moccia, Lorenzo; Simonetti, Alessio; Mazza, Marianna; Marconi, Elisa; Monti, Laura; Chieffo, Daniela Pia Rosaria; Kotzalidis, Georgios; Janiri, Luigi; Sani, Gabriele (29 March 2021). "Not Only Mania or Depression: Mixed States/Mixed Features in Paediatric Bipolar Disorders". Brain Sciences. 11 (4): 434. doi: 10.3390/brainsci11040434 . ISSN   2076-3425. PMC   8065627 . PMID   33805270. DSM-5 introduced the "with mixed features" specifier, which could apply to any type of episode of BD and major depressive disorder (MDD).
  30. 1 2 3 4 Fava, Giovanni A.; Guidi, Jenny (2020). "The pursuit of euthymia". World Psychiatry. 19 (1): 40–50. doi:10.1002/wps.20698. ISSN   1723-8617. PMC   7254162 . PMID   31922678. Patients with bipolar disorder spend about half of their time in depression, mania or mixed states22. The remaining periods are defined as euthymic23, 24, 25, 26, 27. However, considerable fluctuations in psychological distress were recorded in studies with longitudinal designs, suggesting that the illness is still active in those latter periods, even though its intensity may vary28. It is thus questionable whether subthreshold symptomatic periods truly represent euthymia28....This definition of euthymia, because of its intertwining with mood stability, is substantially different from the concept of eudaimonic well‐being, that has become increasingly popular in positive psychology
  31. ↑ Larsen, Jeff T.; McGraw, A. Peter; Cacioppo, John T. (2001). "Can people feel happy and sad at the same time?". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 81 (4): 684–696. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.4.684. ISSN   1939-1315. PMID   11642354. Though mixed feelings may be uncommon, they might often have important consequences (e.g., for health).
  32. ↑ Larsen, Jeff T.; Hershfield, Hal E.; Cazares, James L.; Hogan, Candice L.; Carstensen, Laura L. (2021). "Meaningful endings and mixed emotions: The double-edged sword of reminiscence on good times". Emotion. 21 (8): 1650–1659. doi:10.1037/emo0001011. ISSN   1931-1516. PMC   8817627 . PMID   34591508. Indeed, college students are more likely to report mixed emotions of happiness and sadness on the day that they move out of their freshmen dorm and on their graduation day than on typical days.
  33. ↑ Larson, R.; Csikszentmihalyi, M.; Graef, R. (1980). "Mood variability and the psychosocial adjustment of adolescents". Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 9 (6): 469–490. doi:10.1007/BF02089885. ISSN   0047-2891. PMID   24318310. S2CID   5068051. The findings confirm that adolescents experience wider and quicker mood swings, but do not show that this variability is related to stress, lack of personal control, psychological maladjustment, or social maladjustment within individual teenagers.
  34. ↑ Okoronkwo, Valentine (29 November 2022). "39 Best Emotional Intelligence Statistics To Know In 2022". Passive Secrets. Retrieved 1 September 2023. Only about 36% of people in the world are emotionally Intelligent... 54% of the U.S. population are emotionally aware.
  35. ↑ Wilhelm, Peter & Schoebi, Dominik. (2007). Assessing Mood in Daily Life Structural Validity, Sensitivity to Change, and Reliability of a Short-Scale to Measure Three Basic Dimensions of Mood. European Journal of Psychological Assessment. 23. 258-. 10.1027/1015-5759.23.4.258."Moods can be consciously experienced as soon as they gain the focus of our attention, and are then characterized by the predominance of certain subjective feelings."
  36. ↑ Durstewitz, Daniel; Huys, Quentin J.M.; Koppe, Georgia (2020). "Psychiatric Illnesses as Disorders of Network Dynamics". Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging. 6 (9): 865–876. arXiv: 1809.06303 . doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2020.01.001. PMID   32249208. S2CID   52288970. Mental illnesses are highly complex, temporally dynamic phenomena (1). Variables across a vast range of timescales – from milliseconds to generations – and levels – from subcellular to societal – interact in complex manners to result in the dynamic, rich and extraordinarily heterogeneous temporal trajectories that are characteristic of the personal and psychiatric histories evident in mental health services across the world.
  37. 1 2 van Genugten, Claire. (2022). Measurement innovation: studies on smartphone-based ecological momentary assessment in depression. VU Research Portal.ISBN 978-94-93270-96-1."Mood dynamics are the patterns that characterize fluctuations in a person's mood [64]. Mood dynamics are often operationalized by a combination of "mood variability" and "emotional inertia" [65,66].
  38. ↑ van Genugten, Claire R.; Schuurmans, Josien; Hoogendoorn, Adriaan W.; Araya, Ricardo; Andersson, Gerhard; Baños, Rosa M.; Berger, Thomas; Botella, Cristina; Cerga Pashoja, Arlinda; Cieslak, Roman; Ebert, David D.; García-Palacios, Azucena; Hazo, Jean-Baptiste; Herrero, Rocío; Holtzmann, Jérôme (17 March 2022). "A Data-Driven Clustering Method for Discovering Profiles in the Dynamics of Major Depressive Disorder Using a Smartphone-Based Ecological Momentary Assessment of Mood". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 13: 755809. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.755809 . ISSN   1664-0640. PMC   8968132 . PMID   35370856.
  39. ↑ Miklowitz, D. J., Gitlin, M. J. (2015). Clinician's Guide to Bipolar Disorder. Amerika Serikat: Guilford Publications."The mood swings of individuals with cyclothymia occur most of the time (in the DSM-5 definition, no more than 2 consecutive months have been symptom-free within a 2-year period) and never exhibit the number of symptoms or the length of ..."
  40. ↑ Rhoads, J. (2021). Clinical Consult to Psychiatric Mental Health Management for Nurse Practitioners. Amerika Serikat: Springer Publishing Company."Mood changes in cyclothymic disorder can be abrupt and unpredictable, of short duration, and with infrequent euthymic episodes."
  41. ↑ Perugi, Giulio; Hantouche, Elie; Vannucchi, Giulia (2017). "Diagnosis and Treatment of Cyclothymia: The "Primacy" of Temperament". Current Neuropharmacology. 15 (3): 372–379. doi:10.2174/1570159X14666160616120157. ISSN   1875-6190. PMC   5405616 . PMID   28503108. Cyclothymia is characterized by early onset, persistent, spontaneous and reactive mood fluctuations, associated with a variety of anxious and impulsive behaviors, resulting in a very rich and complex clinical presentation. Current diagnostic criteria for cyclothymic disorder (DSM-5 and ICD-10), emphasizing only episodic mood symptoms, may be misleading both from diagnostic and therapeutic point of views.
  42. 1 2 Holmes, E A; Bonsall, M B; Hales, S A; Mitchell, H; Renner, F; Blackwell, S E; Watson, P; Goodwin, G M; Di Simplicio, M (26 January 2016). "Applications of time-series analysis to mood fluctuations in bipolar disorder to promote treatment innovation: a case series". Translational Psychiatry. 6 (1): e720. doi:10.1038/tp.2015.207. ISSN   2158-3188. PMC   5068881 . PMID   26812041. A time-series approach allows comparison of mood instability pre- and post-treatment. Figure 1
  43. ↑ Tondo, Leonardo; Vázquez, Gustavo H.; Baldessarini, Ross J. (2017). "Depression and Mania in Bipolar Disorder". Current Neuropharmacology. 15 (3): 353–358. doi:10.2174/1570159X14666160606210811. ISSN   1875-6190. PMC   5405618 . PMID   28503106. As expected, episodes of depressions were much longer than manias, but episode-duration did not differ among BD diagnostic types: I, II, with mainly mixed-episodes (BD-Mx), or with psychotic features (BD-P)...A total of 56.8% of subjects could be characterized for major course-patterns as either DMI or MDI, which occurred in similar proportions for each type. As expected, depressive episodes averaged 5.2 months
  44. ↑ Gottschalk, A.; Bauer, M. S.; Whybrow, P. C. (1995). "Evidence of chaotic mood variation in bipolar disorder". Archives of General Psychiatry. 52 (11): 947–959. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950230061009. ISSN   0003-990X. PMID   7487343. These studies indicate that mood in patients with bipolar disorder is not truly cyclic for extended periods. Nonetheless, self-rated mood in bipolar disorder is significantly more organized than self-rated mood in normal subjects and can be characterized as a low-dimensional chaotic process. This characterization of the dynamics of bipolar disorder provides a unitary theoretical framework that can accommodate neurobiologic and psychosocial data and can reconcile existing models for the pathogenesis of the disorder. Furthermore, consideration of the dynamical structure of bipolar disorder may lead to new methods for predicting and controlling pathologic mood.
  45. ↑ Last, C. G. (2009). When Someone You Love Is Bipolar: Help and Support for You and Your Partner. Ukraina: Guilford Publications."Research indicates that bipolar II depressions persist for longer periods of time than bipolar I depressions, nearly twice as long (1 year versus 6 months)."
  46. ↑ Solomon, David A.; Fiedorowicz, Jess G.; Leon, Andrew C.; Coryell, William; Endicott, Jean; Li, Chunshan; Boland, Robert J.; Keller, Martin B. (2013). "Recovery from multiple episodes of bipolar I depression". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 74 (3): e205–211. doi:10.4088/JCP.12m08049. ISSN   1555-2101. PMC   3837577 . PMID   23561241. The median duration of major depressive episodes was 14 weeks, and over 70% recovered within 12 months of onset of the episode. The median duration of minor depressive episodes was 8 weeks, and approximately 90% recovered within 6 months of onset of the episode...An early report from this study examined 66 participants with bipolar I followed for up to 5 years, and found that the median time to recovery from the first two prospectively observed episodes of major depression was 20 weeks and 24 weeks.16 A subsequent report described 82 participants with bipolar I followed for 10 years; the median duration of major and minor depressive episodes were 12 and 5 weeks, respectively.17
  47. ↑ Fink, C., Kraynak, J. (2011). Bipolar Disorder For Dummies. Amerika Serikat: Wiley."Rapid cycling isn't a separate type of bipolar disorder, but your doctor may use the label to describe a particular subtype of Bipolar I or II. To qualify as a rapid-cycling sufferer, you must experience the following: You must ..."
  48. ↑ Clinical Handbook for the Management of Mood Disorders. (2013). Amerika Serikat: Cambridge University Press."While both mania and hypomania are phenomenologically similar in that they occur as discrete episodes ... "
  49. ↑ admin. "PMS". Women's International Pharmacy. Retrieved 20 August 2023. In PMS: Solving the Puzzle, Linaya Hahn identifies five patterns of symptoms, occurring primarily within the luteal phase but varying in timing and intensity (see Patterns of PMS Symptoms)
  50. ↑ Bowen, Rudy; Bowen, Angela; Baetz, Marilyn; Wagner, Jason; Pierson, Roger (2011). "Mood Instability in Women With Premenstrual Syndrome". Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada. 33 (9): 927–934. doi:10.1016/s1701-2163(16)35018-6. ISSN   1701-2163. PMID   21923990. (graph PMS pattern)...Key characteristics of PMS include a lack of symptoms during the follicular phase, a peak of symptoms during the late luteal or premenstrual phase, and a sudden decrease of symptoms with the onset of menses.
  51. ↑ Dilbaz, Berna; Aksan, Alperen (28 May 2021). "Premenstrual syndrome, a common but underrated entity: review of the clinical literature". Journal of the Turkish German Gynecological Association. 22 (2): 139–148. doi:10.4274/jtgga.galenos.2021.2020.0133. ISSN   1309-0399. PMC   8187976 . PMID   33663193. The ACOG definition involves the presence of at least one of the six affective symptoms (angry outbursts, depression, anxiety, confusion, irritability and social withdrawal) and one of the four somatic…
  52. ↑ Southward, Matt & Semcho, Stephen & Stumpp, Nicole & MacLean, Destiney & Sauer, Shannon. (2020). A Day in the Life of Borderline Personality Disorder: A Preliminary Analysis of Within-Day Emotion Generation and Regulation. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment. 42. 702-713. 10.1007/s10862-020-09836-1."Graph"
  53. ↑ Carpenter, Ryan W.; Trull, Timothy J. (2013). "Components of emotion dysregulation in borderline personality disorder: a review". Current Psychiatry Reports. 15 (1): 335. doi:10.1007/s11920-012-0335-2. ISSN   1535-1645. PMC   3973423 . PMID   23250816. It consists of a heightened emotional reactivity to environmental stimuli, including emotions of others. Emotion sensitivity in BPD has primarily been associated with negative mood states (e.g., anger, fear, sadness) and not positive emotions (although see [9, 10]).
  54. ↑ Paris, Joel (7 June 2005). "Borderline personality disorder". CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal. 172 (12): 1579–1583. doi:10.1503/cmaj.045281. ISSN   1488-2329. PMC   558173 . PMID   15939918. ...but in BPD, symptoms are usually associated with mood instability rather than with the extended and continuous periods of lower mood seen in classic mood disorders.19 Also, because of characteristic mood swings, BPD is often mistaken for bipolar disorder.30 However, patients with BPD do not show continuously elevated mood but instead exhibit a pattern of rapid shifts in affect related to environmental events, with "high" periods that last for hours rather than for days or weeks.
  55. ↑ Bertsch, Katja; Back, Sarah; Flechsenhar, Aleya; Neukel, Corinne; Krauch, Marlene; Spieß, Karen; Panizza, Angelika; Herpertz, Sabine C. (2021). "Don't Make Me Angry: Frustration-Induced Anger and Its Link to Aggression in Women With Borderline Personality Disorder". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 12: 695062. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.695062 . ISSN   1664-0640. PMC   8195331 . PMID   34122197. Individuals with BPD report more negative emotions and a greater intensity of negative emotions than healthy individuals throughout the day (9). However, recent data suggest a particular relevance of anger, a negative emotion that is closely related to reactive aggression, in BPD. Using e-diaries, Kockler et al. (10) found that individuals with BPD exhibit anger more frequently in their daily life than healthy as well as clinical control groups and feelings of anger accounted for more distress than pure emotional intensity.
  56. ↑ Reich Brad.(2012).Affective Instability in Borderline Personality Disorder.McLean Hospital."Graph"
  57. ↑ Koenigsberg, Harold W.; Harvey, Philip D.; Mitropoulou, Vivian; Schmeidler, James; New, Antonia S.; Goodman, Marianne; Silverman, Jeremy M.; Serby, Michael; Schopick, Frances; Siever, Larry J. (2002). "Characterizing Affective Instability in Borderline Personality Disorder". American Journal of Psychiatry. 159 (5): 784–788. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.5.784. ISSN   0002-953X. PMID   11986132. The results of this study suggest that the presence of greater lability in terms of anger, anxiety, and depression/anxiety oscillation characterizes borderline personality disorder, while suggesting that the subjective sense of high affective intensity is present in this population but does not explain these other affective phenomena.
  58. ↑ Beatson, Josephine A.; Rao, Sathya (29 October 2013). "Depression and borderline personality disorder". Medical Journal of Australia. 199 (6): S24-7. doi: 10.5694/mja12.10474 . ISSN   0025-729X. PMID   25370280. S2CID   22836499. Depressive symptoms that occur as part of BPD are usually transient and related to interpersonal stress (eg, after an event arousing feelings of rejection). Such "depression" usually lifts dramatically when the relationship is restored. Depressive symptoms in BPD may also serve to express feelings (eg, anger, frustration, hatred, helplessness, powerlessness, disappointment) that the patient is not able to express in more adaptive ways.
  59. ↑ Köhling, Johanna; Ehrenthal, Johannes C.; Levy, Kenneth N.; Schauenburg, Henning; Dinger, Ulrike (1 April 2015). "Quality and severity of depression in borderline personality disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Clinical Psychology Review. 37: 13–25. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.02.002. ISSN   0272-7358. PMID   25723972. Moderator analyses revealed lower depression severity in BPD patients without comorbid DeDs, but higher severity in BPD patients with comorbid DeDs compared to depressed controls...some authors labeled the depression experienced in BPD "borderline-depression", characterized by distinct feelings of loneliness and isolation (Adler and Buie, 1979, Grinker et al., 1968), emptiness or boredom (Gunderson, 1996), high dependency and fears of abandonment (Masterson, 1976), as well as intense anger and hate toward the self and others (Hartocollis, 1977, Kernberg, 1975, Kernberg, 1992).
  60. 1 2 FW, Reimherr & Marchant, Barrie & Olsen, John & C, Halls & Kondo, Douglas & ED, Lyon & Robison, Reid. (2010). Emotional dysregulation as a core feature of adult ADHD: Its relationship with clinical variables and treatment response in two methylphenidate trials. Journal of ADHD and Related Disorders. 1. 53-64. "Graph"
  61. ↑ Skirrow, Caroline; Asherson, Philip (1 May 2013). "Emotional lability, comorbidity and impairment in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder". Journal of Affective Disorders. 147 (1): 80–86. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.10.011. ISSN   0165-0327. PMID   23218897. This study replicates research showing that adults with ADHD report heighted emotional lability (EL), which contributes to impairments in their daily life.
  62. ↑ J. Rosen, Paul; N. Epstein, Jeffery (2010). "A pilot study of ecological momentary assessment of emotion dysregulation in children" (PDF). Journal of ADHD & Related Disorder. 1 (4): 49 – via semantic scholar. This pattern is consistent with the pattern of dysregulation demonstrated by the ADHD-EDr child in the present study, as he demonstrated generally low positive affect along with 10 single time-point ratings of mild to moderate irritability over the 4 weeks.
  63. ↑ Winstanley, Catharine A.; Eagle, Dawn M.; Robbins, Trevor W. (2006). "Behavioral models of impulsivity in relation to ADHD: translation between clinical and preclinical studies". Clinical Psychology Review. 26 (4): 379–395. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.01.001. ISSN   0272-7358. PMC   1892795 . PMID   16504359. However, common themes include decreased inhibitory control, intolerance of delay to rewards and quick decision-making due to lack of consideration, as well as more universal deficits such as poor attentional ability.
  64. ↑ Ciompi, Luc (2015). "The key role of emotions in the schizophrenia puzzle". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 41 (2): 318–322. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbu158. ISSN   1745-1701. PMC   4332953 . PMID   25481397. Kraepelin1 and Bleuler2 had already mainly focused on "flat" or "inappropriate" emotions as core features of the illness.
  65. ↑ Høegh, Margrethe Collier; Melle, Ingrid; Aminoff, Sofie R.; Haatveit, Beathe; Olsen, Stine Holmstul; Huflåtten, Idun B.; Ueland, Torill; Lagerberg, Trine Vik (2021). "Characterization of affective lability across subgroups of psychosis spectrum disorders". International Journal of Bipolar Disorders. 9 (1): 34. doi: 10.1186/s40345-021-00238-0 . ISSN   2194-7511. PMC   8566621 . PMID   34734342. There were no statistically significant differences between individuals with BD-I and SZ for any ALS-SF dimension and these two groups had very similar score patterns throughout. This suggests that despite the overlap in core affective symptom profiles of BD-I and BD-II, the BD-I group is more similar to SZ than it is to BD-II concerning levels of affective lability.
  66. ↑ van Rossum, Inge; Dominguez, Maria-de-Gracia; Lieb, Roselind; Wittchen, Hans-Ulrich; van Os, Jim (2011). "Affective dysregulation and reality distortion: a 10-year prospective study of their association and clinical relevance". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 37 (3): 561–571. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbp101. ISSN   1745-1701. PMC   3080695 . PMID   19793794. Evidence from multiple domains indicates that affective dysregulation is strongly associated with reality distortion.1,2 Genetic epidemiological studies have demonstrated that the liabilities for bipolar disorder and schizophrenia are correlated.
  67. ↑ Kilian, Sanja; Asmal, Laila; Goosen, Anneke; Chiliza, Bonginkosi; Phahladira, Lebogang; Emsley, Robin (2015). "Instruments measuring blunted affect in schizophrenia: a systematic review". PLOS ONE. 10 (6): e0127740. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1027740K. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0127740 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   4452733 . PMID   26035179. Blunted affect, also referred to as emotional blunting, is a prominent symptom of schizophrenia. Patients with blunted affect have difficulty in expressing their emotions [1], characterized by diminished facial expression, expressive gestures and vocal expressions in reaction to emotion provoking stimuli [1–3]. However, patients' reduced outward emotional expression may not mirror subjective internal emotional experiences [4] suggesting a disconnect in what patients experience, perceive and express when interpreting emotional stimuli [5] due to problems associated with emotional processing [6–7].
  68. ↑ Docherty, Nancy M.; St-Hilaire, Annie; Aakre, Jennifer M.; Seghers, James P. (2009). "Life events and high-trait reactivity together predict psychotic symptom increases in schizophrenia". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 35 (3): 638–645. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbn002. ISSN   0586-7614. PMC   2669571 . PMID   18245057. There is evidence that the occurrence of stressful life events3,6–8 or the presence of social relationship stressors such as high levels of familial "expressed emotion9–11" are associated with subsequent exacerbation of psychotic symptoms in patients as a group.
  69. ↑ Thompson, Renee J.; Mata, Jutta; Jaeggi, Susanne M.; Buschkuehl, Martin; Jonides, John; Gotlib, Ian H. (2012). "The everyday emotional experience of adults with major depressive disorder: Examining emotional instability, inertia, and reactivity". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 121 (4): 819–829. doi:10.1037/a0027978. ISSN   1939-1846. PMC   3624976 . PMID   22708886. Whether depressed individuals and healthy controls will differ in their instability of PA is less clear. As we noted above, depressed individuals have been found to have blunted emotional responses to valenced stimuli in the laboratory (Bylsma, et al., 2008) and decreased responsivity to reward (e.g., Pizzagalli, Iosifescu, Hallett, Ratner, & Fava, 2009)...
  70. ↑ Bowen, Rudy; Peters, Evyn; Marwaha, Steven; Baetz, Marilyn; Balbuena, Lloyd (2017). "Moods in Clinical Depression Are More Unstable than Severe Normal Sadness". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 8: 56. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00056 . ISSN   1664-0640. PMC   5388683 . PMID   28446884. He noted that people with melancholia could become over-talkative and manic but did not adequately explain why this is so." & "On the VAS ratings, the depressed group experienced more severe low moods and less severe high moods than the non-depressed group, as would be expected given the selection criteria. This is consistent with reports of more severe negative emotions and variable positive emotions in ecological momentary assessment studies of patients with major depression (12, 33, 53).
  71. ↑ Christensen, Michael Cronquist; Ren, Hongye; Fagiolini, Andrea (4 April 2022). "Emotional blunting in patients with depression. Part I: clinical characteristics". Annals of General Psychiatry. 21 (1): 10. doi: 10.1186/s12991-022-00387-1 . ISSN   1744-859X. PMC   8981644 . PMID   35379283. Emotional effects of depression and treatment vary, but may include, for example, feeling emotionally "numbed" or "blunted" in some way; lacking positive emotions or negative emotions; feeling detached from the world around you...
  72. ↑ Sperry, Sarah Havens; Walsh, Molly A.; Kwapil, Thomas Richard (30 September 2019). "Emotion Dynamics Concurrently and Prospectively Predict Mood Psychopathology". Journal of Affective Disorders. 261: 67–75. doi:10.31234/osf.io/n7xza. PMID   31600589. S2CID   242802425 . Retrieved 25 August 2023. Major depressive disorder is characterized by high mean NA and low mean PA (e.g., Watson et al., 1988).... Note that major depressive disorder generally is unassociated with instability of NA or PA (Köhling et al., 2016; Koval et al., 2013).
  73. ↑ Murray, Greg (1 September 2007). "Diurnal mood variation in depression: A signal of disturbed circadian function?". Journal of Affective Disorders. Depression and Anxiety in Women across Cultures. 102 (1): 47–53. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2006.12.001. ISSN   0165-0327. PMID   17239958. Diurnal variation in mood is a prominent symptom of depression, and is typically experienced as positive mood variation (PMV — mood being worse upon waking and better in the evening).
  74. ↑ Loas, Gwenolé; Salinas, Eliseo; Pierson, Annick; Guelfi, Julien D.; Samuel-Lajeunesse, Bertrand (1 September 1994). "Anhedonia and blunted affect in major depressive disorder". Comprehensive Psychiatry. 35 (5): 366–372. doi:10.1016/0010-440X(94)90277-1. ISSN   0010-440X. PMID   7995029. The depressives are more sensitive to displeasure and more anhedonic than controls.
  75. ↑ Faedda, Gianni L.; Marangoni, Ciro; Reginaldi, Daniela (1 May 2015). "Depressive mixed states: A reappraisal of Koukopoulos׳criteria". Journal of Affective Disorders. 176: 18–23. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.01.053. ISSN   0165-0327. PMID   25687279. The mixed depressive syndrome is not a transitory state but a state of long duration, which may last weeks or several months. The clinical picture is characterized by dysphoric mood, emotional lability, psychic and/or motor agitation, talkativeness, crowded and/or racing thoughts, rumination, initial or middle insomnia.
  76. ↑ Wonderlich, Stephen A.; Rosenfeldt, Steven; Crosby, Ross D.; Mitchell, James E.; Engel, Scott G.; Smyth, Joshua; Miltenberger, Raymond (2007). "The effects of childhood trauma on daily mood lability and comorbid psychopathology in bulimia nervosa". Journal of Traumatic Stress. 20 (1): 77–87. doi:10.1002/jts.20184. PMID   17345648. Emotional abuse was associated with average daily mood and mood lability.
  77. ↑ Power, Mick J.; Fyvie, Claire (2013). "The Role of Emotion in PTSD: Two Preliminary Studies". Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy. 41 (2): 162–172. doi:10.1017/S1352465812000148. ISSN   1352-4658. PMID   22452905. S2CID   33989429. The results showed that less than 50% of PTSD cases presented with anxiety as the primary emotion, with the remainder showing primary emotions of sadness, anger, or disgust rather than anxiety
  78. ↑ Price, Matthew; Legrand, Alison C.; Brier, Zoe M. F.; Gratton, Jennifer; Skalka, Christian (2020). "The short-term dynamics of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms during the acute posttrauma period". Depression and Anxiety. 37 (4): 313–320. doi:10.1002/da.22976. ISSN   1520-6394. PMC   8340953 . PMID   31730736. Taken together, these results indicate that PTSD development is a dynamic process in which symptoms interact over time (Gelkopf et al., 2017). As hypothesized, intrusions and AAR symptoms may be more important early on and lead to other symptoms in the disorder.
  79. ↑ Shalev, Arieh Y. (2009). "Posttraumatic stress disorder and stress-related disorders". The Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 32 (3): 687–704. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2009.06.001. ISSN   1558-3147. PMC   2746940 . PMID   19716997. Chronic PTSD most often co-occurs with mood, anxiety and substance use disorders. It is highly reactive to environmental reminders of the traumatic event and to renewed life-stressors, and thus may have a fluctuating course (23).
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  81. ↑ Yehuda, Rachel; LeDoux, Joseph (4 October 2007). "Response Variation following Trauma: A Translational Neuroscience Approach to Understanding PTSD". Neuron. 56 (1): 19–32. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2007.09.006 . ISSN   0896-6273. PMID   17920012. S2CID   25239428. Reexperiencing symptoms describe spontaneous, often insuppressible intrusions of the traumatic memory in the form of images or nightmares that are accompanied by intense physiological distress...Hyperarousal symptoms reflect more overt physiological manifestations, such as insomnia, irritability, impaired concentration, hypervigilance, and increased startle responses.
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  139. ↑ Scott, K. M.; de Vries, Y. A.; Aguilar-Gaxiola, S.; Al-Hamzawi, A.; Alonso, J.; Bromet, E. J.; Bunting, B.; Caldas-de-Almeida, J. M.; Cía, A.; Florescu, S.; Gureje, O.; Hu, C.-Y.; Karam, E. G.; Karam, A.; Kawakami, N. (23 June 2020). "Intermittent explosive disorder subtypes in the general population: association with comorbidity, impairment and suicidality". Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences. 29: e138. doi:10.1017/S2045796020000517. ISSN   2045-7979. PMC   7327434 . PMID   32638683. A prominent bimodal conceptualisation of aggression classifies it as either: (i) spontaneous (referred to as reactive or impulsive aggression), or (ii) planned (referred to as proactive, premediated or instrumental aggression) (Babcock et al., 2014; Wrangham, 2018)." & "...DSM-5 is the occurrence of repeated episodes of impulsive aggression resulting in verbal or physical assaults or property destruction." & "DSM-IV criterion B for IED requires that the aggressiveness is 'grossly out of proportion to any precipitating psychosocial stressor'.
  140. ↑ Tilghman-Osborne, Carlos; Cole, David A.; Felton, Julia W.; Ciesla, Jeffrey A. (October 2008). "Relation of Guilt, Shame, Behavioral and Characterological Self-Blame to Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents Over Time". Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 27 (8): 809–842. doi:10.1521/jscp.2008.27.8.809. ISSN   0736-7236. PMC   4238306 . PMID   25419043. Results suggest that shame and CSB converge into a common construct, significantly related to depressive symptoms and cognitions. Convergence of guilt and BSB, however, was limited to particular pairs of measures.
  141. ↑ Seok, Ji-Woo; Cheong, Chaejoon (20 May 2020). "Gray Matter Deficits and Dysfunction in the Insula Among Individuals With Intermittent Explosive Disorder". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 11: 439. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00439 . ISSN   1664-0640. PMC   7251158 . PMID   32508687. We found hyperreactivity in brain regions involved in both, emotional expression, and regulation.
  142. ↑ Sengupta, A. (January 2003). "The emergence of the menopause in India". Climacteric. 6 (2): 92–95. doi:10.1080/cmt.6.2.92.95. ISSN   1369-7137. PMID   12841878. S2CID   22273563.
  143. ↑ Freeman, Ellen W.; Sammel, Mary D.; Lin, Hui; Nelson, Deborah B. (1 April 2006). "Associations of Hormones and Menopausal Status With Depressed Mood in Women With No History of Depression". Archives of General Psychiatry. 63 (4): 375–382. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.63.4.375 . ISSN   0003-990X. PMID   16585466. Transition to menopause and its changing hormonal milieu are strongly associated with new onset of depressed mood among women with no history of depression.
  144. ↑ Hankinson, S. E., & Tworoger, S. S. (2011). Assessment of the hormonal milieu. IARC scientific publications, (163), 199–214."The hormonal milieu has been hypothesized to play a role in a range of human diseases, and therefore has been a topic of much epidemiologic investigation. Hormones of particular interest include: sex steroids; growth hormones; insulin-like growth factors; stress hormones, such as cortisol; and hormones produced by the adipose tissue, termed adipokines."
  145. ↑ Gava, Giulia; Orsili, Isabella; Alvisi, Stefania; Mancini, Ilaria; Seracchioli, Renato; Meriggiola, Maria Cristina (1 October 2019). "Cognition, Mood and Sleep in Menopausal Transition: The Role of Menopause Hormone Therapy". Medicina (Kaunas, Lithuania). 55 (10): 668. doi: 10.3390/medicina55100668 . ISSN   1648-9144. PMC   6843314 . PMID   31581598. Sex steroids are able to modify several functions including behavior, cognition and memory, sleep, mood, pain and coordination, amongst others.
  146. ↑ Li, Zezhi; Ruan, Meihua; Chen, Jun; Fang, Yiru (13 February 2021). "Major Depressive Disorder: Advances in Neuroscience Research and Translational Applications". Neuroscience Bulletin. 37 (6): 863–880. doi:10.1007/s12264-021-00638-3. ISSN   1673-7067. PMC   8192601 . PMID   33582959. Major depressive disorder (MDD) also referred to as depression, is one of the most severe and common psychiatric disorders across the world. It is characterized by persistent sadness, loss of interest or pleasure, low energy, worse appetite and sleep, and even suicide, disrupting daily activities and psychosocial functions.
  147. ↑ Benazzi, Franco (30 June 2006). "Various forms of depression". Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 8 (2): 151–161. doi:10.31887/dcns.2006.8.2/fbenazzi. ISSN   1958-5969. PMC   3181770 . PMID   16889102. The most common DSM-IV-TR manic/hypomanic symptoms of mixed depression are irritability, mental overactivity (flight of ideas, racing thoughts, crowded thoughts), and behavioral overactivity (psychomotor agitation, overtalkativeness). Different frequencies of mixed depression have been reported, which may be related to treated versus untreated samples...
  148. ↑ Busch, Fredric N. (July 2009). "Anger and depression". Advances in Psychiatric Treatment. 15 (4): 271–278. doi: 10.1192/apt.bp.107.004937 . ISSN   1355-5146. Anger in people with depression often stems from narcissistic vulnerability, a sensitivity to perceived or actual loss or rejection. These angry reactions cause intrapsychic conflicts through the onset of guilt and the fear that angry feelings will disrupt relationships
  149. ↑ Soomro, G. Mustafa (18 January 2012). "Obsessive compulsive disorder". BMJ Clinical Evidence. 2012: 1004. ISSN   1752-8526. PMC   3285220 . PMID   22305974. Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) involves obsessions, compulsions, or both, that are not caused by drugs or by a physical disorder, and which cause significant personal distress or social dysfunction.
  150. ↑ Bowen, Rudy; Rahman, Hiba; Dong, Lisa Yue; Khalaj, Sara; Baetz, Marilyn; Peters, Evyn; Balbuena, Lloyd (2018). "Suicidality in People With Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms or Personality Traits". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 9: 747. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00747 . ISSN   1664-0640. PMC   6339952 . PMID   30692943. Recurring thoughts of death and suicide (27) and aggression (28, 29) are common features of OCD. The most prevalent obsession was the fear of harming oneself in the DSM-IV field trials of 431 patients diagnosed with OCD (30, 31).
  151. ↑ Mason, Katherine A. (2022). "Blenders, Hammers, and Knives: Postpartum Intrusive Thoughts and Unthinkable Motherhood". Anthropology and Humanism. 47 (1): 117–132. doi:10.1111/anhu.12379. ISSN   1548-1409. PMC   9435669 . PMID   36061237. These thoughts can include horrific flashes of violence involving one's baby and frequently lead to shame and fear on the mother's part, but rarely result in real-world violence.
  152. ↑ Mann, Sukhmanjeet Kaur; Marwaha, Raman (2023), "Posttraumatic Stress Disorder", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID   32644555 , retrieved 3 August 2023."The symptoms of PTSD include persistently re-experiencing the traumatic event, intrusive thoughts, nightmares, flashbacks, dissociation(detachment from oneself or reality), and intense negative emotional (sadness, guilt) and physiological reaction on being exposed to the traumatic reminder." & "Once people develop PTSD, the recurrent unbidden reliving of the trauma in visual images, emotional states, or nightmares produces a constant reexposure to the terror of the trauma" & "Negative alterations in mood and cognition that began or worsened after the traumatic event..."
  153. ↑ van der Kolk, B. (2000). "Posttraumatic stress disorder and the nature of trauma". Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 2 (1): 7–22. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2000.2.1/bvdkolk. ISSN   1294-8322. PMC   3181584 . PMID   22034447. The DSM-TV Field Trial8 demonstrated that it was not the prevalence of PTSD symptoms themselves, but depression, outbursts of anger, self-destructive behaviors, and feelings of shame, self-blame, and distrust that distinguished a treatment-seeking...
  154. ↑ Altshuler, Lori L.; Hendrick, Victoria; Cohen, Lee S. (2000). "An Update on Mood and Anxiety Disorders During Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period". Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2 (6): 217–222. doi:10.4088/pcc.v02n0604. ISSN   1523-5998. PMC   181144 . PMID   15014632. Marital discord, stressful life events, and ambivalence about the pregnancy are risk factors not only for depression during pregnancy but also for postpartum depression
  155. ↑ Theisler, Charles (17 May 2022), "Premenstrual Syndrome/Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder", Adjuvant Medical Care, New York: CRC Press, pp. 288–289, doi:10.1201/b22898-286, ISBN   9781003291381 , retrieved 20 September 2022
  156. ↑ Kwan, Irene; Onwude, Joseph Loze (25 August 2015). "Premenstrual syndrome". BMJ Clinical Evidence. 2015: 0806. ISSN   1752-8526. PMC   4548199 . PMID   26303988. Psychological symptoms of PMS include irritability, depression, crying/tearfulness, and anxiety. Physical symptoms of PMS include abdominal bloating, breast tenderness, and headaches.
  157. 1 2 Yonkers, Kimberly Ann; O'Brien, P. M. Shaughn; Eriksson, Elias (5 April 2008). "Premenstrual syndrome". Lancet. 371 (9619): 1200–1210. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60527-9. ISSN   1474-547X. PMC   3118460 . PMID   18395582. The length of symptom expression varies between a few days and 2 weeks (figure 1). Symptoms often worsen substantially 6 days before, and peak at about 2 days before, menses start. " & "Such an enhanced tendency to have disphoria as a result of the effects of sex steroids on the brain might be heritable, as suggested by twin studies.56–58 Other possible risk factors for PMS are high body-mass index,59 stress,7 and traumatic events.60" " & "…various indices of serotonergic trans mission are reported to be aberrant in women with PMS.75,80–89" & "Another neurotransmitter that has been linked to PMS is the inhibitory aminoacid GABA. This theory gains support from an imaging study,90"
  158. ↑ Firoozi, Reihane; Kafi, Mousa; Salehi, Iraj; Shirmohammadi, Maryam (2012). "The Relationship between Severity of Premenstrual Syndrome and Psychiatric Symptoms". Iranian Journal of Psychiatry. 7 (1): 36–40. ISSN   2008-2215. PMC   3395966 . PMID   23056116. Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is characterized by a cluster of mild to severe physical or emotional symptoms that mainly begin during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Symptoms should disappear within 4 days of the onset of menses and be severe enough to interfere with normal and daily function. The severe form of PMS is the Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD), which differs from PMS in respect to intensity of symptoms, predominance of mood symptoms, and the significant function impairment. (1, 2, 3). The most common symptoms are tension, irritability, hostility, depression, anxiety, mood swings, sleep changes, breast tenderness, and abdominal bloating (4).
  159. ↑ Wy, Tom Joshua P.; Saadabadi, Abdolreza (2023), "Schizoaffective Disorder", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID   31082056 , retrieved 9 August 2023."Because of criteria that encompass both psychotic and mood symptoms, schizoaffective disorder is easy to mistake for other mental disorders."
  160. ↑ Patel, Krishna R.; Cherian, Jessica; Gohil, Kunj; Atkinson, Dylan (2014). "Schizophrenia: overview and treatment options". P & T: A Peer-Reviewed Journal for Formulary Management. 39 (9): 638–645. ISSN   1052-1372. PMC   4159061 . PMID   25210417. Schizophrenia is a complex, chronic mental health disorder characterized by an array of symptoms, including delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech or behavior, and impaired cognitive ability.
  161. ↑ Upthegrove, Rachel; Marwaha, Steven; Birchwood, Max (15 July 2016). "Depression and Schizophrenia: Cause, Consequence or Trans-diagnostic Issue?". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 43 (2): 240–244. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbw097. ISSN   0586-7614. PMC   5605248 . PMID   27421793. ...phenomenology of depression in schizophrenia, however, has not often been interrogated in phenomenological terms. Some of our recent evidence suggests self-stigma, shame, difficulty in regaining trust in ones own thoughts after recovery from delusional beliefs, and poor motivation are core features rather than other more "biological" symptoms such as early morning wakening, diurnal variation in mood or loss of appetite.14
  162. ↑ Yan, Wenhua; Ji, Weidong; Su, Chen; Yu, Yunhan; Yu, Xiaoman; Chen, Liangliang (1 September 2021). "Anger Experience and Anger Expression Through Drawing in Schizophrenia: An fNIRS Study". Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 721148. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.721148 . ISSN   1664-1078. PMC   8441178 . PMID   34539522. Studying anger is important for schizophrenia because this disease is often associated with angry and hostile behavior (Volavka, 1999)
  163. ↑ Maurizio Pompili, M. D.; Andrea Fiorillo, M. D. (23 July 2015). "Aggression and Impulsivity in Schizophrenia". Psychiatric Times. Vol 32 No 7. 32 (7). Although the neurobiological aspects of aggression in patients with schizophrenia are still not well understood, impulsivity and aggression may correlate with frontal and temporal brain abnormalities.2 Psychotic symptoms, such as delusions and hallucinations, with subsequent suspiciousness and hostility, may result in aggressive behavior. Or, aggression may be impulsive and caused by an environmental frustrating event. Patients may be more aggressive and violent during acute episodes.3
  164. ↑ Pinkham, Amy E.; Harvey, Philip D.; Penn, David L. (2016). "Paranoid individuals with schizophrenia show greater social cognitive bias and worse social functioning than non-paranoid individuals with schizophrenia". Schizophrenia Research: Cognition. 3: 33–38. doi:10.1016/j.scog.2015.11.002. ISSN   2215-0013. PMC   5156478 . PMID   27990352. Paranoia is the most commonly reported delusion among individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia spectrum illnesses (Bentall et al., 2009)
  165. ↑ Keen, Nadine; George, Darren; Scragg, Peter; Peters, Emmanuelle (19 January 2017). "The role of shame in people with a diagnosis of schizophrenia". British Journal of Clinical Psychology. 56 (2): 115–129. doi:10.1111/bjc.12125. ISSN   0144-6657. PMID   28105670. S2CID   1453778. Both the schizophrenia and depression groups exhibited higher levels of external shame, or seeing others as shaming, than the medical group
  166. ↑ Foster, P. M. (2017). The Real Guide to Teenage Depression: Handling Teen Depression A book about what matters most for teen boys and teen girls. Amerika Serikat: PatriceMFoster.com."Seasonal depression, or seasonal affective disorder, is a type of depression that affects a person every year around the same time. It is almost always observed during the winter months, particularly in places where it gets dark and ..."
  167. ↑ Winkler, Dietmar; Pjrek, Edda; Konstantinidis, Anastasios; Praschak-Rieder, Nicole; Willeit, Matthäus; Stastny, Jürgen; Kasper, Siegfried (8 July 2005). "Anger attacks in seasonal affective disorder". The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 9 (2): 215–219. doi: 10.1017/S1461145705005602 . ISSN   1461-1457. PMID   16004620. SAD patients were also more likely to report a larger number of accompanying symptoms during the anger attacks, suggesting that they experience the anger attacks as particularly intense.
  168. ↑ Basco, M. R. (2015). The Bipolar Workbook: Tools for Controlling Your Mood Swings. Amerika Serikat: Guilford Publications."Seasonal Mood Swings Sometimes mood swings occur at predictable times. Common examples are depressions that occur during the winter months and manias that occur in the spring. In this case the shifting seasons can serve as triggers for ..."
  169. ↑ Razali, Nur Atikah; Mohd Daud, Tuti Iryani; Woon, Luke Sy-Cherng; Mohamed Saini, Suriati; Muhammad, Noor Azimah; Sharip, Shalisah (11 January 2023). "Case report: Bipolar disorder in 48,XXYY syndrome". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 13. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1080698 . ISSN   1664-0640. PMC   9874087 . PMID   36713919. 48,XXYY is one of the most under-studied and rare types of sex chromosome aneuploidies (SCAs). In male births, 48,XXYY incidence occurs with an estimated prevalence of 1 in 18,000–40,000 (1). The SCAs can influence the neurodevelopment of an individual and are associated with impairment in executive function, verbal skills, working memory, sustained attention, mental flexibility, and inhibition by altering the basic differentiation process of the neurons, encoding proteins, and synaptic transmission (2).
  170. ↑ Tartaglia, Nicole; Davis, Shanlee; Hench, Alison; Nimishakavi, Sheela; Beauregard, Renee; Reynolds, Ann; Fenton, Laura; Albrecht, Lindsey; Ross, Judith; Visootsak, Jeannie; Hansen, Robin; Hagerman, Randi (15 June 2008). "A new look at XXYY syndrome: medical and psychological features". American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part A. 146A (12): 1509–1522. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.32366. ISSN   1552-4833. PMC   3056496 . PMID   18481271. Behavioral and psychiatric symptoms including hyperactivity, attention problems, impulsivity, aggression, mood instability, and "autistic-like" behaviors have also been described [Schlegel et al., 1965; Sorensen et al., 1978; Fryns et al., 1995; Hagerman, 1999].
  171. ↑ Sekhon, Sandeep; Gupta, Vikas (2023), "Mood Disorder", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID   32644337 , retrieved 13 August 2023, Neurotransmitters that play an important function in mood disorders are serotonin and...." & "Stressful life changes (death of significant other, parents, siblings, etc.) traumatic events and childhood abuse have been found to be major risk factors for the development of mood disorder later on in life....
  172. ↑ Peterson, Christopher; Park, Nansook; Seligman, Martin E. P. (2006). "Greater strengths of character and recovery from illness". The Journal of Positive Psychology. 1 (1): 17–26. doi:10.1080/17439760500372739. ISSN   1743-9760. S2CID   143660204. A retrospective web-based study of 2087 adults found small but reliable associations between a history of physical illness and the character strengths of appreciation of beauty, bravery, curiosity, fairness, forgiveness, gratitude, humor, kindness, love of learning, and spirituality.
  173. ↑ Crowe, Marie (2017). "Recovery and mood disorders". Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing. 24 (8): 561–562. doi: 10.1111/jpm.12418 . PMID   28802085. Personal recovery involves developing the skills to live well and is a very individual process that the consumer can undertake on their own, with peers and family or through disorder-specific psychotherapies. Personal recovery can be contrasted with clinical and functional recovery and refers to the process of individual psychological adaptation to the disorder rather than the reduction of psychiatric symptoms, relapse prevention and addressing functional impairment (Tse et al., 2014)
  174. ↑ Chan, Kevin Ka Shing; Yip, Charles Chiu Hung; Tsui, Jack Ka Chun (27 February 2023). "Self-Compassion Mediates the Impact of Family Support on Clinical and Personal Recovery Among People with Mental Illness". Mindfulness. 14 (3): 720–731. doi: 10.1007/s12671-023-02088-6 . ISSN   1868-8527. S2CID   257243921. Our findings indicate that people with mental illness who receive greater support from the family are better able to have self-caring attitudes...They may also have more positive experiences and perceptions of recovery and attain greater levels of life satisfaction and enjoyment.
  175. ↑ Concerto, Carmen; Rodolico, Alessandro; Mineo, Ludovico; Ciancio, Alessia; Marano, Leonardo; Romano, Carla Benedicta; Scavo, Elisa Vita; Spigarelli, Riccardo; Fusar-Poli, Laura; Furnari, Rosaria; Petralia, Antonino; Signorelli, Maria Salvina (16 June 2023). "Exploring Personal Recovery in Schizophrenia: The Role of Mentalization". Journal of Clinical Medicine. 12 (12): 4090. doi: 10.3390/jcm12124090 . ISSN   2077-0383. PMC   10299717 . PMID   37373783. It encompasses various elements, such as spirituality, empowerment, embracing the illness actively, finding hope, restoring a positive identity, creating meaning in life, combating stigma, taking charge of one's own life, and cultivating supportive relationships [4]. PR concerns the individuals' perceived capacity to manage mental illness, their sense of purpose, and their confidence in their ability to lead a fulfilling life, irrespective of the disorder's severity [5]
  176. ↑ O’Keeffe, Donal; Sheridan, Ann; Kelly, Aine; Doyle, Roisin; Madigan, Kevin; Lawlor, Elizabeth; Clarke, Mary (18 June 2021). "A qualitative study exploring personal recovery meaning and the potential influence of clinical recovery status on this meaning 20 years after a first episode psychosis". Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 57 (3): 473–483. doi:10.1007/s00127-021-02121-w. ISSN   0933-7954. PMC   8934321 . PMID   34143247. For many, recovery is their preferred term to describe the continuing experience of living with, managing, or overcoming mental health difficulties [5].
  177. ↑ Gilbert, Paul (1999). Overcoming Depression. Basic Books. p. 63. ISBN   978-0-465-01508-5.
  178. ↑ Goleman, pp. 73-4
  179. ↑ Terence Real (1997). I Don't Want to Talk About It. Newleaf. p. 279. ISBN   978-0717127108. ASIN   0717127109.
  180. ↑ Elfrey, Mary Kate; Ziegelstein, Roy C. (2009). "The "inactivity trap"". General Hospital Psychiatry. 31 (4): 303–305. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2009.05.001. ISSN   1873-7714. PMC   2752478 . PMID   19555788. It is the unfortunate result of the bidirectional relationship between depression and inactivity: depression leads to a reduced activity level, and depressive symptoms then become more severe. Berlin, et al.
  181. ↑ Mazzucchelli, Trevor G.; Kane, Robert T.; Rees, Clare S. (2010). "Behavioral activation interventions for well-being: A meta-analysis". The Journal of Positive Psychology. 5 (2): 105–121. doi:10.1080/17439760903569154. ISSN   1743-9760. PMC   2882847 . PMID   20539837. By intentional activity, the authors meant discrete actions or practices that individuals must choose to engage in and that require some effort to enact. This might include adopting new behaviors such as an exercise program, changing one's cognitive attitudes or practices such as practicing forgiveness, or volitional activity such as pursuing personal goals.
  182. ↑ Vidal-Ribas, Pablo; Brotman, Melissa A.; Valdivieso, Isabel; Leibenluft, Ellen; Stringaris, Argyris (2016). "The Status of Irritability in Psychiatry: A Conceptual and Quantitative Review". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 55 (7): 556–570. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.04.014. ISSN   1527-5418. PMC   4927461 . PMID   27343883. Irritability describes proneness to anger... Irritability is a mood in the sense that young people can remain in states of proneness to anger for very long times and sometimes for no apparent reason, as discussed below... irritability shares a negative valence with anxiety and depression but denotes approach and is therefore linked to elation in mania.
  183. ↑ Elices, Matilde; Soler, Joaquim; Feliu-Soler, Albert; Carmona, Cristina; Tiana, Thais; Pascual, Juan C.; García-Palacios, Azucena; Álvarez, Enric (2017). "Combining emotion regulation and mindfulness skills for preventing depression relapse: a randomized-controlled study". Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation. 4 (1): 13. doi: 10.1186/s40479-017-0064-6 . ISSN   2051-6673. PMC   5497384 . PMID   28690851. The first session provided an overview of the training goals and an explanation of the differences between the three states of mind (i.e., emotional mind, rational mind and wise mind)...In DBT, ER skills training is oriented to encouraging behavioral activation (BA) by training patients in "opposite action" (OA) to depressive symptoms.
  184. ↑ Frazier, Savannah N.; Vela, Jamie (2014). "Dialectical behavior therapy for the treatment of anger and aggressive behavior: A review". Aggression and Violent Behavior. 19 (2): 156–163. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2014.02.001. ISSN   1359-1789. DBT was designed to treat emotional dysregulation (i.e., mood disturbance, affective liability, uncontrolled anger) and the behavioral difficulties..." & "Research has shown that there are potentially clinically significant results when using DBT to treat anger and aggression in various samples. Findings from this review suggest that treatments, even when modified show a positive impact on the reduction of anger and aggressive behaviors.
  185. ↑ Jones, Brett D. M.; Umer, Madeha; Kittur, Mary E.; Finkelstein, Ofer; Xue, Siqi; Dimick, Mikaela K.; Ortiz, Abigail; Goldstein, Benjamin I.; Mulsant, Benoit H.; Husain, Muhammad I. (5 February 2023). "A systematic review on the effectiveness of dialectical behavior therapy for improving mood symptoms in bipolar disorders". International Journal of Bipolar Disorders. 11 (1): 6. doi: 10.1186/s40345-023-00288-6 . ISSN   2194-7511. PMC   9899872 . PMID   36739574. While they also experienced more improvement in depressive symptoms and in their ability to control emotional states, the difference between the two groups did not reach statistical significance.
  186. ↑ Renna, Megan E.; Fresco, David M.; Mennin, Douglas S. (2020). "Emotion Regulation Therapy and Its Potential Role in the Treatment of Chronic Stress-Related Pathology Across Disorders". Chronic Stress (Thousand Oaks, Calif.). 4: 2470547020905787. doi:10.1177/2470547020905787. ISSN   2470-5470. PMC   7219947 . PMID   32440604. ...first phase of treatment focusing on increasing momentary clarity of motivational responses during emotional episodes and the cultivation of mindful emotion regulation skills with the goal of promoting counteractive responding to intense emotional experiences. Skills are presented in a specific order focusing on less cognitively elaborative skills (e.g., attention regulation skills) followed by more cognitively elaborative skills (e.g., metacognitive regulation skills).
  187. ↑ Frank, Ellen; Swartz, Holly A; Kupfer, David J (15 September 2000). "Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy: managing the chaos of bipolar disorder". Biological Psychiatry. 48 (6): 593–604. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(00)00969-0. ISSN   0006-3223. PMID   11018230. S2CID   7926489. Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy is a manual-based psychotherapy (E. Frank et al, unpublished data, 1999) focusing on 1) the link between mood and life events, 2) the importance of maintaining regular daily rhythms as elucidated by the SRM, 3) the identification and management of potential precipitants of rhythm dysregulation with special attention to interpersonal triggers, 4).
  188. ↑ Boland, Elaine M.; Bender, Rachel E.; Alloy, Lauren B.; Conner, Bradley T.; Labelle, Denise R.; Abramson, Lyn Y. (2012). "Life events and social rhythms in bipolar spectrum disorders: an examination of social rhythm sensitivity". Journal of Affective Disorders. 139 (3): 264–272. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.01.038. ISSN   1573-2517. PMC   3368102 . PMID   22381951. Shen, Alloy, Abramson, and Sylvia provided further evidence of social rhythm irregularities in bipolar spectrum disorder (2008). In a sample of 414 undergraduates, those diagnosed with either cyclothymia or bipolar II disorder reported significantly fewer regular activities than normal controls.
  189. ↑ Bullock, Ben; Judd, Fiona; Murray, Greg (2011). "Social rhythms and vulnerability to bipolar disorder". Journal of Affective Disorders. 135 (1–3): 384–388. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.06.006. ISSN   0165-0327. PMID   21708409. As well as being strongly associated with the clinical manifestation of BD, reduced social rhythmicity has also been demonstrated in some populations with increased risk for BD.
  190. ↑ Murray, Greg; Gottlieb, John; Swartz, Holly A. (2021). "Maintaining Daily Routines to Stabilize Mood: Theory, Data, and Potential Intervention for Circadian Consequences of COVID-19". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie. 66 (1): 9–13. doi:10.1177/0706743720957825. ISSN   1497-0015. PMC   7890582 . PMID   32909832. More than 30 years ago, it was observed that major life events associated with mood disorder (divorce, loss of job, life transitions) are not just psychologically challenging but also cause significant change to daily routines.10 Unemployment, for example, may be associated not just with challenges to self-esteem but also with less regular bed-, wake- and mealtimes. This instability of daily routines, in turn, may have circadian impact through weakened zeitgeber information.
  191. ↑ Bai, Zhenggang; Luo, Shiga; Zhang, Luyao; Wu, Sijie; Chi, Iris (2020). "Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) to reduce depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Affective Disorders. 260: 728–737. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.09.040. ISSN   0165-0327. PMID   31563072. S2CID   203466750. ...To foster psychological flexibility, according to Grégoire et al. (2017), ACT relies on six interrelated and overlapping processes: acceptance (i.e., willingness to open fully to unwanted experiences such as difficult thoughts, memories, or emotions), contact with the present moment (i.e., being mindful and aware of one's experiences), self as context (i.e., maintaining perspective about oneself within one's experiences), cognitive defusion (i.e., being able to step back from unwanted experiences without getting stuck in them), committed action (i.e., engaging in actions that move toward important aspects of life), and values (i.e., staying connected to personal values or areas of life that are important).

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