Job satisfaction

Last updated
A post office worker appears to be happy as she pushes a mail cart. Post office works to keep customers happy DVIDS107587.jpg
A post office worker appears to be happy as she pushes a mail cart.

Job satisfaction, employee satisfaction or work satisfaction is a measure of workers' contentment with their job, whether they like the job or individual aspects or facets of jobs, such as nature of work or supervision. [1] Job satisfaction can be measured in cognitive (evaluative), affective (or emotional), and behavioral components. [2] Researchers have also noted that job satisfaction measures vary in the extent to which they measure feelings about the job (affective job satisfaction). [3] or cognitions about the job (cognitive job satisfaction). [4]

Contents

One of the most widely used definitions in organizational research is that of Edwin A. Locke (1976), who defines job satisfaction as "a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences" (p. 1304). [5] Others have defined it as simply how content an individual is with their job; whether they like the job. [6]

It is assessed at both the global level (whether the individual is satisfied with the job overall), or at the facet level (whether the individual is satisfied with different aspects of the job). [1] Spector (1997) [1] lists 14 common facets: appreciation, communication, coworkers, fringe benefits, Job conditions, nature of the work, organization, personal growth, policies and procedures, promotion opportunities, recognition, security, and supervision.

Evaluation

Hulin and Judge (2003) have noted that job satisfaction includes multidimensional psychological responses to an individual's job, and that these personal responses have cognitive (evaluative), affective (or emotional), and behavioral components. [2] Job satisfaction scales vary in the extent to which they assess the affective feelings about the job or the cognitive assessment of the job. Affective job satisfaction is a subjective construct representing an emotional feeling individuals have about their job. [1] [3] [4] [7] Hence, affective job satisfaction for individuals reflects the degree of pleasure or happiness their job in general induces.

Cognitive job satisfaction is a more objective and logical evaluation of various facets of a job. Cognitive job satisfaction can be unidimensional if it comprises evaluation of just one facet of a job, such as pay or maternity leave, or multidimensional if two or more than two facets of a job are simultaneously evaluated. Cognitive job satisfaction does not assess the degree of pleasure or happiness that arises from specific job facets, but rather gauges the extent to which those job facets are judged by the job holder to be satisfactory in comparison with objectives they themselves set or with other jobs. While cognitive job satisfaction might help to bring about affective job satisfaction, the two constructs are distinct, not necessarily directly related, and have different antecedents and consequences. [4]

Job satisfaction can also be seen within the broader context of the range of issues which affect an individual's experience of work, or their quality of working life. Job satisfaction can be understood in terms of its relationships with other key factors, such as general well-being, stress at work, control at work, home-work interface, and working conditions. [8]

History

The assessment of job satisfaction through employee anonymous surveys became commonplace in the 1930s. [9] Although prior to that time there was the beginning of interest in employee attitudes, there were only a handful of studies published. [10] Latham and Budworth [9] note that Uhrbrock [11] in 1934 was one of the first psychologists to use the newly developed attitude measurement techniques to assess factory worker attitudes. They also note that in 1935 Hoppock [12] conducted a study that focused explicitly on job satisfaction that is affected by both the nature of the job and relationships with coworkers and supervisors.

Models

Affect theory

Edwin A. Locke's Range of Affect Theory (1976) is arguably the most famous job satisfaction model. The main premise of this theory is that satisfaction is determined by a discrepancy between what one wants in a job and what one has in a job. Further, the theory states that how much one values a given facet of work (e.g. the degree of autonomy in a position) moderates how satisfied/dissatisfied one becomes when expectations are/are not met. When a person values a particular facet of a job, their satisfaction is more greatly impacted both positively (when expectations are met) and negatively (when expectations are not met), compared to one who does not value that facet.

To illustrate, if Employee A values autonomy in the workplace and Employee B is indifferent about autonomy, then Employee A would be more satisfied in a position that offers a high degree of autonomy and less satisfied in a position with little or no autonomy compared to Employee B. This theory also states that too much of a particular facet will produce stronger feelings of dissatisfaction the more a worker values that facet.

Dispositional approach

The dispositional approach suggests that individuals vary in their tendency to be satisfied with their jobs, in other words, job satisfaction is to some extent an individual trait. [13] This approach became a notable explanation of job satisfaction in light of evidence that job satisfaction tends to be stable over time and across careers and jobs. [14] Research also indicates that identical twins raised apart have similar levels of job satisfaction. [15]

A significant model that narrowed the scope of the dispositional approach was the Core Self-evaluations Model, proposed by Timothy A. Judge, Edwin A. Locke, and Cathy C. Durham in 1997. [16] Judge et al. argued that there are four core self-evaluations that determine one's disposition towards job satisfaction: self-esteem, general self-efficacy, locus of control, and neuroticism. This model states that higher levels of self-esteem (the value one places on oneself) and general self-efficacy (the belief in one's own competence) lead to higher work satisfaction. Having an internal locus of control (believing one has control over one's own life, as opposed to outside forces having control) leads to higher job satisfaction. Finally, lower levels of neuroticism lead to higher job satisfaction. [16] [17]

Equity theory

Equity Theory shows how a person views fairness in regard to social relationships such as with an employer. A person identifies the amount of input (things gained) from a relationship compared to the output (things given) to produce an input/output ratio. They then compare this ratio to the ratio of other people in deciding whether they have an equitable relationship. [18] [19] Equity Theory suggests that if an individual thinks there is an inequality between two social groups or individuals, the person is likely to be distressed because the ratio between the input and the output are not equal. [20]

For example, consider two employees who work the same job and receive the same pay and benefits. If one individual gets a pay raise for doing the same work as the other, then the less benefited individual will become distressed in the workplace. If, on the other hand, both individuals get pay raises and new responsibilities, then the feeling of equity will be maintained. [20]

Other psychologists have extended the equity theory, suggesting three behavioral response patterns to situations of perceived equity or inequity. [21] [22] These three types are benevolent, equity sensitive, and entitled. The level by each type affects motivation, job satisfaction, and job performance.

  1. Benevolent-Satisfied when they are under-rewarded compared with co-workers
  2. Equity sensitive-Believe everyone should be fairly rewarded
  3. Entitled-People believe that everything they receive is their just due [23]

Discrepancy theory

The concept of discrepancy theory is to explain the ultimate source of anxiety and dejection. [24] An individual who has not fulfilled their responsibilities may feel a sense of anxiety and regret for not performing well. They may also feel dejection due to not being able to achieve their hopes and aspirations.

According to this theory, all individuals will learn what their obligations and responsibilities are for a particular function, and if they fail to fulfill those obligations then they are punished. Over time, these duties and obligations consolidate to form an abstracted set of principles, designated as a self-guide. [25] Agitation and anxiety are the main responses when an individual fails to achieve the obligation or responsibility. [26] This theory also explains that if achievement of the obligations is obtained then the reward can be praise, approval, or love. These achievements and aspirations also form an abstracted set of principles, referred to as the ideal self guide. [25] When the individual fails to obtain these rewards, they begin to have feelings of dejection, disappointment, or even depression. [26]

Two-factor theory (motivator-hygiene theory)

Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory (also known as motivator-hygiene theory) attempts to explain satisfaction and motivation in the workplace. [27] This theory states that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are driven by different factors – motivation and hygiene factors, respectively. An employee's motivation to work is continually related to job satisfaction of a subordinate. Motivation can be seen as an inner force that drives individuals to attain personal and organizational goals. [28] Motivating factors are those aspects of the job that make people want to perform, and provide people with satisfaction, for example achievement in work, recognition, promotion opportunities. [29] These motivating factors are considered to be intrinsic to the job, or the work carried out. [27] Hygiene factors include aspects of the working environment such as pay, company policies, supervisory practices, and other working conditions. [27]

Herzberg's model has stimulated much research. In the 1970s, researchers were unable to reliably empirically prove the model however, with Hackman & Oldham suggesting that Herzberg's original formulation of the model may have been a methodological artifact. [27]

The theory has been criticized because it does not consider individual differences, conversely predicting all employees will react in an identical manner to changes in motivating/hygiene factors. [27] The model has also been criticised in that it does not specify how motivating/hygiene factors are to be measured. [27] Most studies use a quantitative approach by for example using validated instruments such as the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. [30] There are also studies that have utilized a qualitative methodology such as by means of individual interviews. [31]

Job characteristics model

Hackman & Oldham proposed the job characteristics model, which is widely used as a framework to study how particular job characteristics impact job outcomes, including job satisfaction. The five core job characteristics can be combined to form a motivating potential score (MPS) for a job, which can be used as an index of how likely a job is to affect an employee's attitudes and behaviors. Not everyone is equally affected by the MPS of a job. People who are high in growth need strength (the desire for autonomy, challenge and development of new skills on the job) are particularly affected by job characteristics. [32] A meta-analysis of studies that assess the framework of the model provides some support for the validity of the JCM. [33]

Influencing factors

Environmental factors

Communication overload and underload

One of the most important aspects of an individual's work in a modern organization concerns the management of communication demands that they encounter on the job. [34] Demands can be characterized as a communication load, which refers to "the rate and complexity of communication inputs an individual must process in a particular time frame." [35]

Individuals in an organization can experience communication overload and communication underload, which can affect their level of job satisfaction. Communication overload can occur when "an individual receives too many messages in a short period of time," resulting in unprocessed information or when an individual faces more complex messages that are more difficult to process. [35] Due to this process, "given an individual's style of work and motivation to complete a task, when more inputs exist than outputs, the individual perceives a condition of overload," [34] which can be positively or negatively related to job satisfaction. In comparison, communication underload can occur when messages or inputs are sent below the individual's ability to process them. [35]

According to the ideas of communication overload and underload, if an individual does not receive enough input on the job or is unsuccessful in processing these inputs, the individual is more likely to become dissatisfied, aggravated, and unhappy with their work, leading to a low level of job satisfaction.

Superior-subordinate communication

Superior-subordinate communication is an important influence on job satisfaction in the workplace. The way in which subordinates perceive a supervisor's behavior can positively or negatively influence job satisfaction. Communication behavior such as facial expression, eye contact, vocal expression, and body movement is crucial to the superior-subordinate relationship. [36] Nonverbal messages play a central role in interpersonal interactions with respect to impression formation, deception, attraction, social influence, and emotion. [37] Nonverbal immediacy from the supervisor helps to increase interpersonal involvement with their subordinates, impacting job satisfaction. The manner in which supervisors communicate with their subordinates nonverbally may be more important than the verbal content. [36] Individuals who dislike and think negatively about their supervisor are less willing to communicate or have motivation to work, whereas individuals who like and think positively of their supervisor are more likely to communicate and are satisfied with their job and work environment. A supervisor who uses nonverbal immediacy, friendliness, and open communication lines is more likely to receive positive feedback and high job satisfaction from a subordinate. Conversely, a supervisor who is antisocial, unfriendly, and unwilling to communicate will naturally receive negative feedback and create low job satisfaction in their subordinates.

Strategic employee recognition

A Watson Wyatt Worldwide study identified a positive outcome between a collegial and flexible work environment and an increase in shareholder value. Suggesting that employee satisfaction is directly related to financial gain. Over 40 percent of the companies listed in the top 100 of Fortune magazine's "America's Best Companies to Work For" also appear on the Fortune 500. It is possible that successful workers enjoy working at successful companies, however, the Watson Wyatt Worldwide Human Capital Index study claims that effective human resources practices, such as employee recognition programs, lead to positive financial outcomes more often than positive financial outcomes lead to good practices. [38]

Employee recognition is not only about gifts and points. It's about changing the corporate culture in order to meet goals and initiatives and most importantly to connect employees to the company's core values and beliefs. Strategic employee recognition is seen as the most important program not only to improve employee retention and motivation but also to positively influence the financial situation. [39] The difference between the traditional approach (gifts and points) and strategic recognition is the ability to serve as a serious business influencer that can advance a company's strategic objectives in a measurable way. "The vast majority of companies want to be innovative, coming up with new products, business models and better ways of doing things. However, innovation is not so easy to achieve. A CEO cannot just order it, and so it will be. You have to carefully manage an organization so that, over time, innovations will emerge." [40]

Individual factors

Emotion

Mood and emotions at work are related to job satisfaction. Moods tend to be longer lasting but often weaker states of uncertain origin, while emotions are often more intense, short-lived and have a clear object or cause. [41]

Some research suggests moods are related to overall job satisfaction. [42] [43] Positive and negative emotions were also found to be significantly related to overall job satisfaction. [44]

Frequency of experiencing net positive emotion will be a better predictor of overall job satisfaction than will intensity of positive emotion when it is experienced. [44]

Emotion work (or emotion management) refers to various types of efforts to manage emotional states and displays. Emotion management includes all of the conscious and unconscious efforts to increase, maintain, or decrease one or more components of an emotion. Although early studies of the consequences of emotional work emphasized its harmful effects on workers, studies of workers in a variety of occupations suggest that the consequences of emotional work are not uniformly negative. [45]

It was found that suppression of unpleasant emotions decreases job satisfaction and the amplification of pleasant emotions increases job satisfaction. [46]

The understanding of how emotion regulation relates to job satisfaction concerns two models:

  1. Emotional dissonance: a state of discrepancy between public displays of emotions and internal experiences of emotions, [47] [48] that often follows the process of emotion regulation. Emotional dissonance is associated with high emotional exhaustion, low organizational commitment, and low job satisfaction. [49] [50]
  2. Social interaction model: taking the social interaction perspective, workers' emotion regulation might beget responses from others during interpersonal encounters that subsequently impact their own job satisfaction. For example, the accumulation of favorable responses to displays of pleasant emotions might positively affect job satisfaction. [46]

Genetics

The influence that genetics has had on a variety of individual differences is well documented. [51] Some research suggests genetics also play a role in the intrinsic, direct experiences of job satisfaction like challenge or achievement (as opposed to extrinsic, environmental factors like working conditions). [52] Notably, Arvey et al. (1989) examined job satisfaction in 34 pairs of monozygotic twins who were reared apart to test for the existence of genetic influence on job satisfaction. After correcting for age and gender, they obtained an intra-class correlation of .31. This suggests that 31% of variance in job satisfaction has a genetic basis, the estimate would be slightly larger if corrected for measurement error. They also found that evidence of genetic heritability for job characteristics, such as complexity level, motor skill requirements, and physical demands. [15]

Personality

Some research suggests an association between personality and job satisfaction. [53] Specifically, this research describes the role of negative affectivity and positive affectivity. Negative affectivity is related strongly to the personality trait of neuroticism. Individuals high in negative affectivity are more prone to experience less job satisfaction. Positive affectivity is related strongly to the personality trait of extraversion. Those high in positive affectivity are more prone to be satisfied in most dimensions of their life, including their job. Differences in affectivity likely impact how individuals will perceive objective job circumstances like pay and working conditions, thus affecting their satisfaction in that job. [54]

There are two personality factors related to job satisfaction, alienation and locus of control. Employees who have an internal locus of control and feel less alienated are more likely to experience job satisfaction, job involvement and organizational commitment. A meta-analysis of 187 studies of job satisfaction concluded that high satisfaction was positively associated with internal locus of control. The study also showed characteristics like high Machiavellianism, narcissism, trait anger, type A personality dimensions of achievement striving and impatience/irritability, are also related to job satisfaction. [55]

Psychological well-being

Psychological well-being (PWB) is defined as "the overall effectiveness of an individual's psychological functioning" as related to primary facets of one's life: work, family, community, etc. [56] There are three defining characteristics of PWB. First, it is a phenomenological event, meaning that people are happy when they subjectively believe themselves to be so. Second, well-being involves some emotional conditions. Particularly, psychologically well people are more prone to experience positive emotions and less prone to experience negative emotions. Third, well-being refers to one's life as a whole. It is a global evaluation. [56] PWB is primarily measured using the eight-item Index of Psychological Well-Being developed by Berkman (IPWB). IPWB asks respondents to reply to a series a questions on how often they felt "pleased about accomplishing something", "bored", "depressed or unhappy", etc. [56]

PWB in the workplace plays an important role in determining job satisfaction and has attracted much research attention in recent years. [57] These studies have focused on the effects of PWB on job satisfaction as well as job performance. [58] One study noted that because job satisfaction is specific to one's job, the research that examined job satisfaction had not taken into account aspects of one's life external to the job. [59] Prior studies had focused only on the work environment as the main determinant of job satisfaction. Ultimately, to better understand job satisfaction (and its close relative, job performance), it is important to take into account an individual's PWB. Research published in 2000 showed a significant correlation between PWB and job satisfaction (r = .35, p < .01). [56] A follow-up study by the same authors in 2007 revealed similar results (r = .30, p < .01). [59] In addition, these studies show that PWB is a better predictor of job performance than job satisfaction alone. Job satisfaction more associate to mental health than physical health. [60] [61]

Measuring

The majority of job satisfaction measures are self-reports and based on multi-item scales. Several measures have been developed over the years, although they vary in terms of how carefully and distinctively they are conceptualized with respect to affective or cognitive job satisfaction. They also vary in terms of the extent and rigour of their psychometric validation.

The Brief Index of Affective Job Satisfaction (BIAJS) is a four-item, overtly affective as opposed to cognitive, measure of overall affective job satisfaction. The BIAJS differs from other job satisfaction measures in being comprehensively validated not just for internal consistency reliability, temporal stability, convergent and criterion-related validities, but also for cross-population invariance by nationality, job level, and job type. Reported internal consistency reliabilities range between 0.81 and 0.87. [3]

The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) [62] is a specifically cognitive job satisfaction measure. It measures one's satisfaction in five facets: pay, promotions and promotion opportunities, coworkers, supervision, and the work itself. The scale is simple, participants answer either yes, no, or can't decide (indicated by '?') in response to whether given statements accurately describe one's job.

The Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) [63] measures satisfaction with nine facets: Pay, Promotion, Supervision, Fringe Benefits, Contingent Rewards, Operating Procedures, Coworkers, Nature of Work, and Communication.

The Michigan Organizational Assessment Questionnaire job satisfaction subscale is a 3-item measure of general job satisfaction. [64] It has been very popular with researchers. [65]

The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) [66] has 20 facets plus intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction scores. There are long and short forms.

The Short Index of Job Satisfaction (SIJS) [67] is a free five-item measure which provides overall attitudinal job satisfaction scores. It derived from the Index of Job Satisfaction (IJS) [68] which originally had 18 items. The SIJS presented good validity evidence based on the internal structure (i.e., dimensionality, reliability of the scores, and measurement invariance among sex and countries) as also good validity evidence based on the relation to other variables (e.g., US samples, [69] Brazilian and Portuguese samples [67] ).

Relationships and practical implications

Job satisfaction can be indicative of work behaviors such as organizational citizenship, [70] and withdrawal behaviors such as absenteeism, [71] and turnover. [72] Further, job satisfaction can partially mediate the relationship of personality variables and deviant work behaviors. [73] The most important predictor of job satisfaction was perceived organizational support, followed by organizational health. Research shows that staying healthy boosts a person's mindset, which influences job satisfaction. Moreover, a corporate wellness program can positively shape how employees feel about their work environment and office conditions. [74] Positive psychological capital was also predicted by organizational health, which was highly related to work satisfaction. [75]

One common research finding is that job satisfaction is correlated with life satisfaction. [76] This correlation is reciprocal, meaning people who are satisfied with life tend to be satisfied with their job and people who are satisfied with their job tend to be satisfied with life. In fact, a 2016 FlexJobs survey revealed 97% of respondents believe a job that offered flexibility would positively impact their lives, 87% think it would help lower stress and 79% think the flexibility would help them live healthier. [77] Additionally, a second survey of 650 working parents revealed that flexible work arrangements can positively affect people's personal health, as well as improve their romantic relationships and 99% of respondents believe a flexible job would make them a happier person in general. [78] However, some research has found that job satisfaction is not significantly related to life satisfaction when other variables such as nonwork satisfaction and core self-evaluations are taken into account. [79]

An important finding for organizations to note is that job satisfaction has a rather tenuous correlation to productivity on the job. This is a vital piece of information to researchers and businesses, as the idea that satisfaction and job performance are directly related to one another is often cited in the media and in some non-academic management literature. A recent meta-analysis found surprisingly low correlations between job satisfaction and performance. [80] Further, the meta-analysis found that the relationship between satisfaction and performance can be moderated by job complexity, such that for high-complexity jobs the correlation between satisfaction and performance is higher than for jobs of low to moderate complexity. Additionally, one longitudinal study indicated that among work attitudes, job satisfaction is a strong predictor of absenteeism, suggesting that increasing job satisfaction and organizational commitment are potentially good strategies for reducing absenteeism and turnover intentions. [81] Recent research has also shown that intention to quit alone can have negative effects on performance, organizational deviance, and organizational citizenship behaviours. [82] In short, the relationship of satisfaction to productivity is not as straightforward as often assumed and can be influenced by a number of different work-related constructs, and the notion that "a happy worker is a productive worker" should not be the foundation of organizational decision-making. For example, employee personality may even be more important than job satisfaction in regards to performance. [83] Job satisfaction has also been found to be impacting the shorter job tenure among persons with severe mental illness. [84]

Absenteeism

Numerous studies have been done to show the correlation of job satisfaction and absenteeism. [85] For example, Goldberg and Waldman looked at absenteeism in two dimensions as total time lost (number of missed days) and the frequency of time lost.

Self-reported data and records-based data were collected and compared. Following absenteeism measures were evaluated according to absenteeism predictors.

  1. Self-report time lost
  2. self-reported frequency
  3. records-based time lost

Only three categories of predictors had a significant relationship ratio and were taken in account further:

This research results revealed that absenteeism cannot be predicted by job satisfaction, although other studies have found significant relationships.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emotion</span> Conscious subjective experience of humans

Emotions are physical and mental states brought on by neurophysiological changes, variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioral responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure. There is no scientific consensus on a definition. Emotions are often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, or creativity.

Industrial and organizational psychology "focuses the lens of psychological science on a key aspect of human life, namely, their work lives. In general, the goals of I-O psychology are to better understand and optimize the effectiveness, health, and well-being of both individuals and organizations." It is an applied discipline within psychology and is an international profession. I-O psychology is also known as occupational psychology in the United Kingdom, organisational psychology in Australia and New Zealand, and work and organizational (WO) psychology throughout Europe and Brazil. Industrial, work, and organizational (IWO) psychology is the broader, more global term for the science and profession.

Emotional intelligence (EI), also known as emotional quotient (EQ), is the ability to perceive, use, understand, manage, and handle emotions. High emotional intelligence includes emotional recognition of emotions of the self and others, using emotional information to guide thinking and behavior, discerning between and labeling of different feelings, and adjusting emotions to adapt to environments.

In organizational behavior and industrial and organizational psychology, organizational commitment is an individual's psychological attachment to the organization. Organizational scientists have also developed many nuanced definitions of organizational commitment, and numerous scales to measure them. Exemplary of this work is Meyer and Allen's model of commitment, which was developed to integrate numerous definitions of commitment that had been proliferated in the literature. Meyer and Allen's model has also been critiqued because the model is not consistent with empirical findings. It may also not be fully applicable in domains such as customer behavior. There has also been debate surrounding what Meyers and Allen's model was trying to achieve.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Attitude (psychology)</span> Concept in psychology and communication studies

An attitude "is a summary evaluation of an object of thought. An attitude object can be anything a person discriminates or holds in mind." Attitudes include beliefs (cognition), emotional responses (affect) and behavioral tendencies. In the classical definition an attitude is persistent, while in more contemporary conceptualizations, attitudes may vary depending upon situations, context, or moods.

Emotional labor is the process of managing feelings and expressions to fulfill the emotional requirements of a job. More specifically, workers are expected to regulate their personas during interactions with customers, co-workers, clients, and managers. This includes analysis and decision-making in terms of the expression of emotion, whether actually felt or not, as well as its opposite: the suppression of emotions that are felt but not expressed. This is done so as to produce a certain feeling in the customer or client that will allow the company or organization to succeed.

In psychology, self-efficacy is an individual's belief in their capacity to act in the ways necessary to reach specific goals. The concept was originally proposed by the psychologist Albert Bandura in 1977.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Affect (psychology)</span> Experience of feeling or emotion

Affect, in psychology, is the underlying experience of feeling, emotion, attachment, or mood. It encompasses a wide range of emotional states and can be positive or negative. Affect is a fundamental aspect of human experience and plays a central role in many psychological theories and studies. It can be understood as a combination of three components: emotion, mood, and affectivity. In psychology, the term affect is often used interchangeably with several related terms and concepts, though each term may have slightly different nuances. These terms encompass: emotion, feeling, mood, emotional state, sentiment, affective state, emotional response, affective reactivity, disposition. Researchers and psychologists may employ specific terms based on their focus and the context of their work.

Neuroticism is a personality trait associated with negative emotions. It is one of the Big Five traits. Individuals with high scores on neuroticism are more likely than average to experience such feelings as anxiety, worry, fear, anger, frustration, envy, jealousy, pessimism, guilt, depressed mood, and loneliness. Such people are thought to respond worse to stressors and are more likely to interpret ordinary situations, such as minor frustrations, as appearing hopelessly difficult. Their behavioral responses may include procrastination, substance use, and other maladaptive behaviors, which may temporarily aid in relieving negative emotions and generating positive ones.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Affective events theory</span> Psychological model

Affective events theory (AET) is an industrial and organizational psychology model developed by organizational psychologists Howard M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano to explain how emotions and moods influence job performance and job satisfaction. The model explains the linkages between employees' internal influences and their reactions to incidents that occur in their work environment that affect their performance, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction. The theory proposes that affective work behaviors are explained by employee mood and emotions, while cognitive-based behaviors are the best predictors of job satisfaction. The theory proposes that positive-inducing as well as negative-inducing emotional incidents at work are distinguishable and have a significant psychological impact upon workers' job satisfaction. This results in lasting internal and external affective reactions exhibited through job performance, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.

Greenberg (1987) introduced the concept of organizational justice with regard to how an employee judges the behavior of the organization and the employee's resulting attitude and behaviour. For example, if a firm makes redundant half of the workers, an employee may feel a sense of injustice with a resulting change in attitude and a drop in productivity.

Group emotion refers to the moods, emotions and dispositional affects of a group of people. It can be seen as either an emotional entity influencing individual members' emotional states or the sum of the individuals' emotional states.

Organizational identification (OI) is a term used in management studies and organizational psychology. The term refers to the propensity of a member of an organization to identify with that organization. OI has been distinguished from "affective organizational commitment". Measures of an individual's OI have been developed, based on questionnaires.

Positive affectivity (PA) is a human characteristic that describes how much people experience positive affects ; and as a consequence how they interact with others and with their surroundings.

Job performance assesses whether a person performs a job well. Job performance, studied academically as part of industrial and organizational psychology, also forms a part of human resources management. Performance is an important criterion for organizational outcomes and success. John P. Campbell describes job performance as an individual-level variable, or something a single person does. This differentiates it from more encompassing constructs such as organizational performance or national performance, which are higher-level variables.

Despite a large body of positive psychological research into the relationship between happiness and productivity, happiness at work has traditionally been seen as a potential by-product of positive outcomes at work, rather than a pathway to business success. Happiness in the workplace is usually dependent on the work environment. During the past two decades, maintaining a level of happiness at work has become more significant and relevant due to the intensification of work caused by economic uncertainty and increase in competition. Nowadays, happiness is viewed by a growing number of scholars and senior executives as one of the major sources of positive outcomes in the workplace. In fact, companies with higher than average employee happiness exhibit better financial performance and customer satisfaction. It is thus beneficial for companies to create and maintain positive work environments and leadership that will contribute to the happiness of their employees.

Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) is employee's behavior that goes against the legitimate interests of an organization. This behavior can harm the organization, other people within it, and other people and organizations outside it, including employers, other employees, suppliers, clients, patients and citizens. It has been proposed that a person-by-environment interaction (the relationship between a person's psychological and physical capacities and the demands placed on those capacities by the person's social and physical environment.) can be utilized to explain a variety of counterproductive behaviors. For instance, an employee who is high on trait anger is more likely to respond to a stressful incident at work with CWB.

Positive psychology is defined as a method of building on what is good and what is already working instead of attempting to stimulate improvement by focusing on the weak links in an individual, a group, or in this case, a company. Implementing positive psychology in the workplace means creating an environment that is more enjoyable, productive, and values individual employees. This also means creating a work schedule that does not lead to emotional and physical distress.

Core self-evaluations (CSE) represent a stable personality trait which encompasses an individual's subconscious, fundamental evaluations about themselves, their own abilities and their own control. People who have high core self-evaluations will think positively of themselves and be confident in their own abilities. Conversely, people with low core self-evaluations will have a negative appraisal of themselves and will lack confidence. The concept of core self-evaluations was first examined by Judge, Locke, and Durham (1997) and involves four personality dimensions: locus of control, neuroticism, generalized self-efficacy, and self-esteem. The trait developed as a dispositional predictor of job satisfaction, but has expanded to predict a variety of other outcomes. Core self-evaluations are particularly important because they represent a personality trait which will remain consistent over time. Furthermore, the way in which people appraise themselves using core self-evaluations has the ability to predict positive work outcomes, specifically, job satisfaction and job performance. These relationships have inspired increasing amounts of research on core self-evaluations and suggest valuable implications about the importance this trait may have for organizations.

A job attitude is a set of evaluations of one's job that constitute one's feelings toward, beliefs about, and attachment to one's job. Overall job attitude can be conceptualized in two ways. Either as affective job satisfaction that constitutes a general or global subjective feeling about a job, or as a composite of objective cognitive assessments of specific job facets, such as pay, conditions, opportunities and other aspects of a particular job. Employees evaluate their advancement opportunities by observing their job, their occupation, and their employer.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Spector, P.E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, causes and consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
  2. 1 2 Hulin, C. L., & Judge, T. A. (2003). Job attitUdes. In W. C. Borman, D. R. ligen, & R. J. Klimoski (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 255-276). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
  3. 1 2 3 Thompson, E.R.; Phua F.T.T. (2012). "A Brief Index of Affective Job Satisfaction". Group & Organization Management. 37 (3): 275–307. doi:10.1177/1059601111434201. S2CID   145122368.
  4. 1 2 3 Moorman, R.H. (1993). "The influence of cognitive and affective based job satisfaction measures on the relationship between satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior". Human Relations. 46 (6): 759–776. doi:10.1177/001872679304600604. S2CID   146393339.
  5. ↑ Locke, E.A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In M.D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp.1297-1349). Chicago: Rand McNally.
  6. ↑ Spector, P.E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, causes and consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
  7. ↑ Kalleberg, A.L. (1977). "Work values and job rewards—Theory of job satisfaction". American Sociological Review. 42 (1): 124–143. doi:10.2307/2117735. JSTOR   2117735. S2CID   34927611.
  8. ↑ Tomaževič, Nina; Seljak, Janko; Aristovnik, Aleksander (4 March 2014). "Factors influencing employee satisfaction in the police service: the case of Slovenia" (PDF). Personnel Review. 43 (2): 209–227. doi:10.1108/pr-10-2012-0176. S2CID   56362686. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 November 2020.
  9. 1 2 Latham, G. P., & Budworth, M. H. (2007). The study of work motivation in the 20th century. In L. L. Koppes (Ed.) Historical perspectives in industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 353-381). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  10. ↑ Kornhauser, A. W. (1930). "Industrial psychology in England, Germany and the United States". Personnel Journal. 8: 421–434.
  11. ↑ Uhrbrock, R. S. (1934). "Attitudes of 4430 employees". The Journal of Social Psychology. 5 (3): 365–377. doi:10.1080/00224545.1934.9921604.
  12. ↑ Hoppock, R. (1935). Job satisfaction. Oxford, England: Harper.
  13. ↑ Staw, B. M.; Bell, N. E.; Clausen, J. A. (1986). "The dispositional approach to job attitudes: A lifetime longitudinal test". Administrative Science Quarterly. 31 (1): 56–77. doi:10.2307/2392766. JSTOR   2392766.
  14. ↑ Staw, B. M.; Cohen-Charash, Y. (2005). "The dispositional approach to job satisfaction: More than a mirage, but not yet an oasis: Comment". Journal of Organizational Behavior. 26 (1): 59–78. doi:10.1002/job.299.
  15. 1 2 Arvey, R. D.; Bouchard, T. J.; Segal, N. L.; Abraham, L. M. (1989). "Job satisfaction: Environmental and genetic components". Journal of Applied Psychology. 74 (2): 187–192. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.74.2.187.
  16. 1 2 Judge, T. A.; Locke, E. A.; Durham, C. C. (1997). "The dispositional causes of job satisfaction: A core evaluations approach". Research in Organizational Behavior. 19: 151–188.
  17. ↑ "dailyscrawl", job satisfaction, October 19, 2019
  18. ↑ Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 276-299). New York: Academic Press.
  19. ↑ Walster, E. E. Berscheid and G. W. Walster. (1973). "New Directions in Equity Research." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. pp. 151-176.
  20. 1 2 Huseman, R.; Hatfield, J.; Miles, E. (1987). "A New Perspective on Equity Theory: The Equity Sensitivity Construct". Academy of Management Review. 12 (2): 232–234. doi:10.5465/amr.1987.4307799. S2CID   44052138.
  21. ↑ Huseman, Richard C.; Hatfield, John D.; Miles, Edward W. (April 1987). "A New Perspective on Equity Theory: The Equity Sensitivity Construct". The Academy of Management Review. 12 (2): 222. doi:10.2307/258531. ISSN   0363-7425. JSTOR   258531.
  22. ↑ O'Neill, Bonnie S.; Mone, Mark A. (1998). "Investigating equity sensitivity as a moderator of relations between self-efficacy and workplace attitudes". Journal of Applied Psychology. 83 (5): 805–816. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.83.5.805. ISSN   0021-9010.
  23. ↑ Schultz, Duane P. Schultz, Sydney Ellen (2010). Psychology and work today : an introduction to industrial and organizational psychology (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall. p. 71. ISBN   978-0205683581.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ↑ Higgins, E. T. (1999b). "When do self-discrepancies have specific relations to emotions? The second-generation question of Tangney, Niedenthal, Covert, and Barlow (1998)". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 77 (6): 1313–1317. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1313. PMID   10626372.
  25. 1 2 Higgins, E. T. (1987). "Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect". Psychological Review. 94 (3): 319–340. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.586.1458 . doi:10.1037/0033-295x.94.3.319. PMID   3615707.
  26. 1 2 Strauman, T. J. (1989). "Self-discrepancies in clinical depression and social phobia: Cognitive structures that underlie emotional disorders?". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 98 (1): 14–22. doi:10.1037/0021-843x.98.1.14. PMID   2708634.
  27. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hackman, J. Richard; Oldham, Greg R. (1 August 1976). "Motivation through the design of work: test of a theory". Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. 16 (2): 250–279. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(76)90016-7. S2CID   8618462.
  28. ↑ Porter, Heidi; Wrench, Jason S.; Hoskinson, Crissy (2007-02-27). "The Influence of Supervisor Temperament on Subordinate Job Satisfaction and Perceptions of Supervisor Sociocommunicative Orientation and Approachability". Communication Quarterly. 55 (1): 129–153. doi:10.1080/01463370600998517. ISSN   0146-3373. S2CID   9606328.
  29. ↑ Aristovnik, Aleksander; Jaklič, Ksenja (31 July 2013). "Job Satisfaction of Older Workers as a Factor of Promoting Labour Market Participation in the EU: The Case of Slovenia". Revija za socijalnu politiku. 20 (2): 123–148. doi: 10.3935/rsp.v20i2.1126 . S2CID   147128260.
  30. ↑ Weiss, D. J., Dawis, R. V., & England, G. W. (1967). "Manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire." Minnesota Studies in Vocational Rehabilitation, 22, 120.
  31. ↑ Holmberg, C., et al. (2017) "Job satisfaction among Swedish mental health nursing personnel: Revisiting the two-factor theory." International Journal of Mental Health Nursing. {{DOI:|10.1111/inm.12339}}.
  32. ↑ Hackman, J. R.; Oldham, G. R. (1976). "Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory". Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. 16 (2): 250–279. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(76)90016-7. S2CID   8618462.
  33. ↑ Fried, Y.; Ferris, G. R. (1987). "The validity of the Job Characteristics Model: A review and meta-analysis". Personnel Psychology. 40 (2): 287–322. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1987.tb00605.x.
  34. 1 2 Krayer, K.J.; Westbrook, L. (1986). "The relationship between communication load and job satisfaction". World Communication. 15: 85–99.
  35. 1 2 3 Farace, R. V., Monge, P. R., & Russell, H. M. (1977). Communicating and organizing. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
  36. 1 2 Teven, J. J. (2007). "Effects of supervisor social influence, nonverbal immediacy, and biological sex on subordinates' perceptions of job satisfaction, liking, and supervisor credibility". Communication Quarterly. 55 (2): 155–177. doi:10.1080/01463370601036036. S2CID   143485769.
  37. ↑ Burgoon, J.K., Buller, D.B., and Woodall, W.G. (1996) Nonverbal Communication, New York: McGraw-Hill
  38. ↑ "KEY FINDINGS Linking Employee Satisfaction with Productivity, Performance, and Customer Satisfaction " (PDF). Retrieved 11 July 2012.
  39. ↑ How Employee Recognition Programmes Improve Retention Archived 2013-01-16 at the Wayback Machine CFO Insight Magazine, January 2013
  40. ↑ Five mistaken beliefs business leaders have about innovation from Freek Vermeulen in Forbes, May 2011
  41. ↑ Weiss HM, Cropanzano R. (1996). Affective events theory: a theoretical discussion of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work. Research in Organizational Behavior 8: 1±74
  42. ↑ Brief AP, Roberson L. (1989). Job attitude organization: an exploratory study. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 19: 717±727.
  43. ↑ Weiss HM, Nicholas JP, Daus CS. (1999). An examination of the joint effects of affective experiences and job beliefs on job satisfaction and variations in affective experiences over time. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 78: 1±24
  44. 1 2 Fisher D. (2000). Mood and emotions while working: missing pieces of job satisfaction? Journal of Organizational Behavior 21, 185±202
  45. ↑ Pugliesi K. (1999). The Consequences of Emotional Labor: Effects on Work Stress, Job Satisfaction, and Weil-BeinMotivation and Emotion, Vol. 23/2
  46. 1 2 Cote S., Morgan LM (2002). A longitudinal analysis of the association between emotion regulation, job satisfaction, and intentions to quit. Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 23, 947–962
  47. ↑ Ashforth, B. E., & Humphrey, R. H. (1993). Emotional labor in service roles: the influence of identity. Academy of Management Review, 18, 88–115
  48. ↑ Rafaeli, A.; Sutton, R. I. (1989). "The expression of emotion in organizational life". Research in Organizational Behavior. 11: 1–42.
  49. ↑ Abraham, R (1999). "The impact of emotional dissonance on organizational commitment and intention to turnover". Journal of Psychology. 133 (4): 441–455. doi:10.1080/00223989909599754. PMID   10412221.
  50. ↑ Morris, J. A.; Feldman, D. C. (1997). "Managing emotions in the workplace". Journal of Managerial Issues. 9: 257–274.
  51. ↑ Rowe, D. C. (1987). "Resolving the person–situation debate: Invitation to an interdisciplinary dialogue". American Psychologist. 42 (3): 218–227. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.42.3.218.
  52. ↑ Li, Wen-Dong; Stanek, Kevin C.; Zhang, Zhen; Ones, Deniz S.; McGue, Matt (November 2016). "Are genetic and environmental influences on job satisfaction stable over time? A three-wave longitudinal twin study". Journal of Applied Psychology. 101 (11): 1598–1619. doi: 10.1037/apl0000057 . ISSN   1939-1854. PMID   27504661.
  53. ↑ Judge, T. A.; Heller, D.; Mount, M. K. (2002). "Five-factor model of personality and job satisfaction: A meta-analysis". Journal of Applied Psychology. 87 (3): 530–541. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.461.558 . doi:10.1037/0021-9010.87.3.530. PMID   12090610. S2CID   10486565.
  54. ↑ Brief, A. P.; Weiss, H. M. (2002). "Organizational behavior: Affect in the workplace". Annual Review of Psychology. 53: 279–307. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135156. PMID   11752487.
  55. ↑ Bruk-Lee, V.; Khoury, H. A.; Nixon, A. E.; Goh, A.; Spector, P. E. (2009). "Replicating and extending past personality/job satisfaction meta-analyses". Human Performance. 22 (2): 156–189. doi:10.1080/08959280902743709. S2CID   143388641.
  56. 1 2 3 4 Wright, T. A.; Cropanzano, R. (2000). "Psychological well-being and job satisfaction as predictors of job performance". Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. 5 (1): 84–94. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.5.1.84. PMID   10658888. S2CID   19053832.
  57. ↑ Baptiste, N. R. (2008). "Tightening the link between employee wellbeing at work and performance: A new dimension for HRM". Management Decision. 46 (2): 284–309. doi:10.1108/00251740810854168.
  58. ↑ Robertson, I. T.; Birch, A. J.; Cooper, C. L. (2012). "Job and work attitudes, engagement and employee performance: Where does psychological well-being fit in?". Leadership & Organization Development Journal. 33 (3): 224–232. doi:10.1108/01437731211216443.
  59. 1 2 Wright, T. A.; Cropanzano, R.; Bonett, D. G. (2007). "The moderating role of employee positive well being on the relation between job satisfaction and job performance". Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. 12 (2): 93–104. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.12.2.93. hdl: 10983/24771 . PMID   17469992.
  60. ↑ Faragher, E. B.; Cass, M.; Cooper, C. L. (2005-02-01). "The relationship between job satisfaction and health: a meta-analysis". Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 62 (2): 105–112. doi:10.1136/oem.2002.006734. ISSN   1351-0711. PMC   1740950 . PMID   15657192.
  61. ↑ Cass, Monica H.; Siu, Oi Ling; Faragher, E. Brian; Cooper, Cary L. (2003). "A meta-analysis of the relationship between job satisfaction and employee health in Hong Kong". Stress and Health. 19 (2): 79–95. doi:10.1002/smi.959. ISSN   1532-2998.
  62. ↑ Smith, P.C., Kendall, L.M.,&Hulin, C.L. (1969) The measurement of satisfaction in work and retirement. Chicago: Rand McNally.
  63. ↑ Spector, P. E. (1985). Measurement of human service staff satisfaction: Development of the Job Satisfaction Survey. American Journal of Community Psychology, 13(6), 693-713.
  64. ↑ Cammann, C., Fichman, M., Jenkins, D., & Klesh, J. (1979). The Michigan Organizational Assessment Questionnaire. Unpublished manuscript, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
  65. ↑ Bowling, N. A., & Hammond, G. D. (2008). A meta-analytic examination of the construct validity of the Michigan Organizational Assessment Questionnaire Job Satisfaction Subscale. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 73(1), 63-77.
  66. ↑ "(MSQ) Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire | Vocational Psychology Research".
  67. 1 2 Sinval, Jorge; Marôco, João (2020-04-14). Useche, Sergio A. (ed.). "Short Index of Job Satisfaction: Validity evidence from Portugal and Brazil". PLOS ONE. 15 (4): e0231474. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1531474S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0231474 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   7156096 . PMID   32287284.
  68. ↑ Brayfield, Arthur H.; Rothe, Harold F. (October 1951). "An index of job satisfaction". Journal of Applied Psychology. 35 (5): 307–311. doi:10.1037/h0055617. ISSN   1939-1854.
  69. ↑ Judge, Timothy A.; Bono, Joyce E.; Locke, Edwin A. (2000). "Personality and job satisfaction: The mediating role of job characteristics". Journal of Applied Psychology. 85 (2): 237–249. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.85.2.237. ISSN   1939-1854. PMID   10783540.
  70. ↑ Organ, D. W.; Ryan, K. (1995). "A meta-analytic review of attitudinal and dispositional predictors of organizational citizenship behavior". Personnel Psychology. 48 (4): 775–802. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1995.tb01781.x.
  71. ↑ Wegge, J.; Schmidt, K.; Parkes, C.; van Dick, K. (2007). "'Taking a sickie': Job satisfaction and job involvement as interactive predictors of absenteeism in a public organization". Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology. 80: 77–89. doi:10.1348/096317906x99371. S2CID   55773617.
  72. ↑ Saari, L. M.; Judge, T. A. (2004). "Employee attitudes and job satisfaction". Human Resource Management. 43 (4): 395–407. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.390.5512 . doi:10.1002/hrm.20032.
  73. ↑ Mount, M.; Ilies, R.; Johnson, E. (2006). "Relationship of personality traits and counterproductive work behaviors: The mediating effects of job satisfaction". Personnel Psychology. 59 (3): 591–622. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.2006.00048.x . S2CID   16269260.
  74. ↑ Marshall, Craig (2020-10-08). "Analysis of a comprehensive wellness program's impact on job satisfaction in the workplace". International Hospitality Review. 34 (2): 221–241. doi: 10.1108/IHR-05-2020-0014 . ISSN   2516-8142.
  75. ↑ Viseu, João; Pinto, Patrícia; Borralha, Sérgio; de Jesus, Saul Neves (October 2020). "Role of individual and organizational variables as predictors of job satisfaction among hotel employees". Tourism and Hospitality Research. 20 (4): 466–480. doi:10.1177/1467358420924065. ISSN   1467-3584. S2CID   219410963.
  76. ↑ Rain, J.S.; Lane, I.M.; Steiner, D.D. (1991). "A current look at the job satisfaction/life satisfaction relationship: Review and future considerations". Human Relations. 44 (3): 287–307. doi:10.1177/001872679104400305. S2CID   145459382.
  77. ↑ Weiler Reynolds, Brie (2016-08-26). "Survey: Only 7% of Workers Say They're Most Productive in the Office". FlexJobs.com. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
  78. ↑ Weiler Reynolds, Brie (2016-02-23). "Survey: Impact of Flexwork on Love, Relationships, Sex, and Health". FlexJobs.com. Retrieved 23 February 2016.
  79. ↑ Rode, J. C. (2004). "Job satisfaction and life satisfaction revisited: A longitudinal test of an integrated model". Human Relations. 57 (9): 1205–1230. doi:10.1177/0018726704047143. S2CID   145207251.
  80. ↑ Judge, T. A.; Thoresen, C. J.; Bono, J. E.; Patton, G. K. (2001). "The job satisfaction-job performance relationship: A qualitative and quantitative review". Psychological Bulletin. 127 (3): 376–407. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.3.376. PMID   11393302. S2CID   17456617.
  81. ↑ Cohen, A.; Golan, R. (2007). "Predicting absenteeism and turnover intentions by past absenteeism and work attitudes". Career Development International. 12 (5): 416–432. doi:10.1108/13620430710773745. S2CID   17093065.
  82. ↑ Krishnan, S.K.; Singh, M. (2010). "Outcomes of intention to quit of Indian IT professionals". Human Resource Management. 49 (3): 419–435. doi:10.1002/hrm.20357.
  83. ↑ Bowling, N.A. (2007). "Is the Job Satisfaction-Job Performance Relationship Spurious: A Meta-Analytic Examination". Journal of Vocational Behavior. 71 (2): 167–185. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2007.04.007.
  84. ↑ Becker, Deborah R.; Drake, Robert E.; Bond, Gary R.; Xie, Haiyi; Dain, Bradley J.; Harrison, Katherine (1998-02-01). "Job Terminations Among Persons with Severe Mental Illness Participating in Supported Employment". Community Mental Health Journal. 34 (1): 71–82. doi:10.1023/A:1018716313218. ISSN   1573-2789. PMID   9559241. S2CID   9699405.
  85. ↑ Goldberg, Caren B.; Waldman, David A. (2000). "Modeling employee absenteeism: testing alternative measures and mediated effects based on job satisfaction". Journal of Organizational Behavior. 21 (6): 665–676. doi:10.1002/1099-1379(200009)21:6<665::AID-JOB48>3.0.CO;2-P. ProQuest   224879009.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.