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The Armenian genocide was the systematic destruction of the Armenian people and identity in the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), it was implemented primarily through the mass murder of around one million Armenians during death marches to the Syrian Desert and the forced Islamization of Armenian women and children.
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The Three Pashas also known as the Young Turk triumvirate or CUP triumvirate consisted of Mehmed Talaat Pasha (1874–1921), the Grand Vizier and Minister of the Interior; Ismail Enver Pasha (1881–1922), the Minister of War; and Ahmed Cemal Pasha (1872–1922), the Minister of the Navy, who effectively ruled the Ottoman Empire after the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état. According to historian Hans-Lukas Kieser, Talaat's power increased over time and eclipsed the others after 1913–1914.
The Special Organization was a paramilitary organization in the Ottoman Empire known for its key role in the commission of the Armenian genocide. Originally organized under the Ministry of War, the organization was shifted to answer directly to the ruling party Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) in February 1915. Led by Bahaeddin Şakir and Nazım Bey and formed in early 1914 of tribesmen as well as more than 10,000 convicted criminals—offered a chance to redeem themselves if they served the state—as a force independent of the regular army that could be used to attack civilians. It was the progenitor of the National Security Service of the Republic of Turkey, which was itself the predecessor of the modern National Intelligence Organization.
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Armenian genocide denial is the claim that the Ottoman Empire and its ruling party, the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), did not commit genocide against its Armenian citizens during World War I—a crime documented in a large body of evidence and affirmed by the vast majority of scholars. The perpetrators denied the genocide as they carried it out, claiming Armenians were resettled for military reasons, not exterminated. In the genocide's aftermath, incriminating documents were systematically destroyed, and denial has been the policy of every government of the Republic of Turkey, as of 2023.
Ottoman labour battalions was a form of unfree labour in the late Ottoman Empire. The term is associated with the disarmament and murder of Ottoman Armenian soldiers during World War I, of Ottoman Greeks during the Greek genocide in the Ottoman Empire and also during the Turkish War of Independence.
Armenian resistance included military, political, and humanitarian efforts to counter Ottoman forces and mitigate the Armenian genocide during the first World War. Early in World War I, the Ottoman Empire commenced efforts to eradicate Armenian culture and eliminate Armenian life, through acts of killing and death marches into uninhabitable deserts and mountain regions. The result was the homogenisation of the Ottoman Empire and elimination of 90% of the Armenian Ottoman population.
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Hans-Lukas Kieser is a Swiss historian of the late Ottoman Empire and Turkey, Professor of modern history at the University of Zurich and president of the Research Foundation Switzerland-Turkey in Basel. He is an author of books and articles in several languages.
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The Armenian Massacres in Ottoman Turkey: A Disputed Genocide is a 2006 book by Guenter Lewy about the Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire. In the book, Lewy argues that the high death toll among Ottoman Armenians was a byproduct of the conditions of the marches and on sporadic attacks rather than a planned attempt to exterminate them.
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During World War I, Imperial Germany was a military ally of the Ottoman Empire, which perpetrated the Armenian genocide. Many Germans present in eastern and southern Anatolia witnessed the genocide, but censorship and self-censorship hampered these reports, while German newspapers reported Turkish denial of the massacres. About 800 German officers and 25.000 German soldiers were an integral part of the Turkish army and belonged to its command and general staff. German officers signed orders that led to deportations of Armenians. Although individual Germans tried to publicize the Armenians' fate or save lives, the German state has been criticized for "extreme moral indifference" to the plight of Armenians and not doing anything to stop the genocide. In 2016, the Bundestag apologized for Germany's "inglorious role" in a resolution recognizing the genocide.
Kemalist historiography is a narrative of history mainly based on a six-day speech delivered by Mustafa Kemal [Atatürk] in 1927, promoted by the political ideology of Kemalism, and influenced by Atatürk's cult of personality. It asserts that the Republic of Turkey represented a clean break with the Ottoman Empire, and that the Republican People's Party did not succeed the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). These claims have been widely rejected by scholars, notably by Taner Akçam, Erik-Jan Zürcher, Uğur Ümit Üngör and Hans-Lukas Kieser.
Ryan Gingeras is a professor at the Naval Postgraduate School in California and a historian of the late Ottoman Empire.
Differing views of what caused the Armenian genocide include explanations focusing on nationalism, religion, and wartime radicalization and continue to be debated among scholars. In the twenty-first century, focus has shifted to multicausal explanations. Most historians agree that the genocide was not premeditated before World War I, but the role of contingency, ideology, and long-term structural factors in causing the genocide continues to be discussed.
References
- ↑ "Historian Hilmar Kaiser to Present Lecture Sponsored by AMAA on Humanitarian Resistance to Genocide". The Armenian Mirror-Spectator. 29 August 2019. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
- ↑ Gust, Wolfgang (2012). "The Question of an Armenian Revolution and the Radicalization of the Committee of Union and Progress toward the Armenian Genocide". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 7 (2/3): 251–264. doi:10.3138/gsp.7.2/3.251.
- ↑ Schaller, Dominik J.; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies—introduction". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820. S2CID 71515470.
- ↑ Kieser, Hans-Lukas (11 August 2010). "7. Beatrice Rohner (1876-1947) and the Armenian Genocide". A Quest for Belonging. Gorgias Press. pp. 219–234. doi:10.31826/9781463225582-008. ISBN 978-1-4632-2558-2.
- ↑ Ionescu, Stefan (2011). "Perpetrators, Bystanders, and Rescuers. Popular Attitudes Towards Ottoman Christians During the Armenian Genocide". Studia Politica. Romanian Political Science Review. 11 (2): 328–344. ISSN 1582-4551.
- ↑ Jarvis, Robert M. (2019–2020). "Abram I. Elkus: The New York Yankees' First Lawyer". Kentucky Law Journal. 108: 467.
- ↑ Sjöberg, Erik (2021). "The End of the Ottomans: The Genocide of 1915 and the Politics of Turkish Nationalism. Ed. Hans-Lukas Kieser, Margaret Lavinia Anderson, Seyhan Bayraktar, and Thomas Schmutz. London: I.B. Tauris, 2019. xiv, 365 pp. Chronology. Index. Figures. Maps. $115.00, hard bound". Slavic Review. 80 (1): 146–148. doi:10.1017/slr.2021.37. S2CID 236727375.
- ↑ Okkenhaug, Inger Marie (1 January 2010). "Scandinavian Missionaries, Gender and Armenian Refugees during World War I. Crisis and Reshaping of Vocation". Social Sciences and Missions. 23: 63–93. doi:10.1163/187489410X488521.
- ↑ "The case of the Greek_Genocide –_A historiographic overview of the modern academic debate" . Retrieved 22 January 2022.
- ↑ Deringil, Selim (2019). ""Your Religion is Worn and Outdated"". Études arméniennes contemporaines (12): 33–65. doi: 10.4000/eac.2090 . ISSN 2269-5281. S2CID 166348593.
- ↑ Tavernise, Sabrina (8 March 2009). "Nearly a Million Genocide Victims, Covered in a Cloak of Amnesia". The New York Times. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
- ↑ Keyder, Çağlar (1998). "Writing History: Armenians in the Empire". New Perspectives on Turkey. 19: 147–151. doi:10.1017/S089663460000306X. S2CID 151829188.
- ↑ Boyraz, Cemil (2017). "Ethnic Turkification and homogenization from Ottoman empire to the Turkish republic: critical investigations into the historiography of non-Muslims in Turkey". Turkish Studies. 18 (2): 378–389. doi:10.1080/14683849.2016.1246944. S2CID 152043476.
- ↑ Der Matossian, Bedross (2015). "Explaining the Unexplainable: Recent Trends in the Armenian Genocide Historiography". Journal of Levantine Studies . 5 (2). ISSN 2222-9973.