Ironic process theory

Last updated March 22, 2024

Ironic process theory (IPT) suggests that when an individual intentionally tries to avoid thinking a certain thought or feeling a certain emotion, a paradoxical effect is produced: the attempted avoidance not only fails in its object but in fact causes the thought or emotion to occur more frequently and more intensely.^[1] IPT is also known as "ironic rebound," or "the white bear problem."^[2]

The phenomenon was identified through thought suppression studies in experimental psychology. Social psychologist Daniel Wegner first studied ironic process theory in a laboratory setting in 1987.^[3] Ironic mental processes have been shown in a variety of situations, where they are usually created by or worsened by stress. In extreme cases, ironic mental processes result in intrusive thoughts about doing something immoral or out of character, which can be troubling to the individual. These findings have since guided clinical practice. For example, they show why it would be unproductive to try to suppress anxiety-producing or depressing thoughts.^[4]

Original experiment

The first study investigating the paradoxical effects of thought suppression was conducted by Daniel Wegner in a laboratory in 1987. Wegner was an American social psychologist in the field of mental control, conscious will, etc. His interest of thought suppression was based on Freud's psychopathology theory. Freud posited that it was the unconscious that helped hide unwanted thoughts, but he failed to explain daily cases where individuals deliberately make effort to suppress a thought. Meanwhile, studies have shown that conscious thought suppression is difficult as those thoughts always linger in the mind. To explain these, some researchers started investigation. Wegner was one of them, and he conducted two laboratory experiments in 1987, asking participants to will away the thought of a white bear.

In the first study, 34 participants were asked to read instructions inducing them to describe their thoughts verbally. They were randomly allocated to either initial suppression or initial expression condition. The two conditions only differed in the order of tasks. The expression task instructed participants to think of a white bear; the suppression task instructed them not to. In both tasks, participants had to ring a bell every time they thought of a white bear. Results showed that the initial suppression group exhibited more frequent thought of the white bear in the expression task. Initial suppression, hence, produced a rebound effect.

The second experiment added a third group, asking participants to think of a red Volkswagen as a distractor during the suppression task. The results confirmed previous findings but showed that a distractor alleviated the paradoxical result caused by initial suppression as the third group rang the bell less frequently.

Wegner explains that when individuals try to suppress a thought, they may feel it difficult and then become curious about why the thought is so persistent. Although they may be able to suppress the thought temporarily, later reminders of the thought can produce a preoccupation with the formerly hidden thought. Initial suppression therefore paradoxically increases the frequency of unwanted thoughts eventually.^[3]

Mechanism

Wegner claims that successful thought suppression requires two distinct mental processes, that must be performed simultaneously. The first process is the operating process, which occupies mental resources to will away the unwanted thought, object, or emotion that is persistent in the mind. It works continuously until the thought is cleared completely. The second one is the monitoring process, which acts as a detector searching for unwanted thoughts. It then replaces them by shifting attention to other objects.

When individuals' attention is on another task, their mental resources become limited, making it difficult to conduct the operating process. However, the monitoring process is still running, making individuals aware of those unwanted thoughts. The shutdown of operating processes and the continuance of monitoring reduce their ability to suppress the thoughts, and the unwanted thoughts eventually become even more prominent.^[5]

This theory explains the effects of increased cognitive load by emphasizing that where there is cognitive effort, the monitoring process may supplant the conscious process, while also suggesting that in order for thought suppression to be effective, a balance between the two processes must exist, with the cognitive demand not being so great as to let the monitoring process interrupt the conscious processes.^[3] A 2006 study found that individual differences may be able to account for differences.^[6]

Evidence

Eating behaviour of restrained eaters

The ironic process theory predicts that suppressing the desire to eat can paradoxically lead to overeating due to limited cognitive resources. Boom et al. conducted an experiment in 2002 to investigate the interaction between suppression, distraction, and the perceived calorie content of the food stimuli. The experiment was a "2 (restrained/unrestrained) * 2 (distraction yes/no) * 2 (perceived calories high/low) design, in which subjects consumed ice cream in a taste test situation." Ice-cream consumption was then measured. Results showed that restrained participants ate more than unrestrained participants, and when there was a distraction, they ate even more. These findings supported the theory. Their attempts to inhibit their desire to eat only produced an ironic result—eating more ice cream.^[7]

Anger suppression on pain severity and pain behaviours

Burns et al. conducted an experiment in 2008 to investigate the relationship between anger suppression, pain severity, and pain behaviours in chronic low back pain patients. Based on Ironic Process Theory, the researchers supposed that the initial suppression of anger would ironically make the feeling of anger more intense. Participants were randomly assigned to either the suppression or no suppression group. During the experiment, they first completed a task inducing their anger, with a pain behaviour task following. Results showed that the suppression group reported greater anger and pain intensity. They also demonstrated more pain behaviors. "Attempts to suppress anger may aggravate pain related to their clinical condition through ironically increased feelings of anger."^[8]

Application

The ironic process theory can be applied in the treatment for patients with mood disorders, such as anxiety and depression. The attempts of those patients who try to avoid their negative thoughts and feelings, such as suicidal ideas and frustration, may contradictorily make the thoughts even more persistent in their minds. "Trying not to be sad could over time engender severe sadness." Therefore, therapists should inform patients that negative thoughts may be beneficial and encourage them to accept their feelings rather than suppress them. Studies have also proved that this method could reduce depression.^[9]

Memorization and mnemonics

Although in certain domains, such as memorization, it appears that ironic effects of attempting to remember vary with the level of mental control over mnemonic processing and may simply be due to ineffective mental strategies.^[10]^{[ clarification needed ]}

"Intentional memory processes and their associated mnemonic strategies can be viewed as one form of mental control",^[11] When we attempt to exert influence over our memories we engage in mental control in the form of mnemonics our faculties of memory".^[12] because "mental control occurs when people suppress a thought, concentrate on a sensation, inhibit an emotion, maintain a mood, stir up a desire, squelch a craving, or otherwise exert influence on their own mental states".^[13]

Experience sampling

The experience sampling or daily diary method is one way that psychologists attempt to scientifically measure thoughts. This involves "interrupting people as they go about their daily lives and asking them to record the thoughts they are having right at that moment, in that place", often by using "clickers".^[14]

One research team at Ohio State University tried to figure out how often people think about sex by using so-called "clickers", asking the 283 college students to click each time they thought about sex, food, or sleep (there were three groups of students). The study found that on average men had 19 thoughts about sex per day (the highest being 388 times per day) whereas women thought about sex ten times per day.^[15] Among the study's flaws were that the researchers had not taken ironic process theory into their experimental design—students "were given a clicker by the researchers and asked to record when they thought about sex (or food or sleep). Imagine them walking away from the psychology department, holding the clicker in their hand, trying hard not to think about sex all the time, yet also trying hard to remember to press the clicker every time they did think about it."^[14]

Counteractive strategies

In the course of his years of research, Wegner discovered that interested people invariably asked if there was any way to avoid or suppress the unwanted thought. He and others identified the following strategies:^[16]

1. Focus on another object as distractor.

2. Postpone the thought. Set it aside for another time, possibly allowing for a specific duration.

3. Decrease your mental load by cutting back on multitasking.

4. Consciously expose yourself to the thought. Allowing controlled exposure to the thought decreases the likelihood of its unexpected, unwanted reappearance.

5. Practice meditation and mindfulness. Increased mental strength and balance can help in the avoidance of unwanted thoughts.

Criticism

The generalisability of the theory is still in question. Wegner's study used a white bear, and later studies in this area only used one stimulus as well. It is not known if similar results will be found when other stimuli are used, as the nature of the thought being suppressed, such as whether it is emotional, easily imagined, familiar, or complex, may impact the results.^[3]

Earlier references

In Winter Notes on Summer Impressions (1863), Russian author Fyodor Dostoevsky wrote: "Try to pose for yourself this task: not to think of a polar bear, and you will see that the cursed thing will come to mind every minute." Wegner's determination to devise and carry out the white bear experiments was originally inspired by Dostoevsky's observation.^[17]

In 1952, Frank H. Richardson used the dictum "there is no such thing as a psychological negative" as advice to boys on how to avoid sexual thoughts and be "clean-minded":

The other thing I'd like you to remember is that there is no such thing as a 'psychological negative.' Sounds very technical, doesn't it? But in reality it's very simple. Let me give you an example of what it means.
Suppose I were to say to you, 'Now don't think about the end of your nose. Whatever else you do, don't think about the end of your nose! Now, remember what I say, Don, you must not think about the end of your nose!!!'
You'd probably tell me, if you were not too polite, 'Well, if you'll only stop telling me not to think about it, I won't. But as long as you keep telling me not to think about it, and as long as I keep trying not to think about it, I simply can't help thinking about it.'
That's what is meant by the law, 'There is no such thing as a psychological negative.' You cannot 'not think' about something. All you can do is to think about something else. So don't be worried if these smutty thoughts keep flying over your head. Don't waste a minute trying to 'not think' about them. Just think about something else.
— for BOYS only, The Doctor Discusses the Mysteries of Manhood, Doctor, can you tell me?^[18]

In 1965, Eve Merriam published the picture book Don't Think about a White Bear.^[19] In 1970, Cary A. Lind registered a song titled "Don't Think of Elephants".^[20] In 1974, the modern expression "[don't] think of a pink elephant" appeared in Curt Siodmak's City In the Sky:^[21]

I know how bad off I am. He doesn't even want me to think. Tell a man he shouldn't think of a pink elephant and he can't get that beast out of his mind! My mind starts walking its own road as soon as I close my eyes.

Alternative

Psychological reactance theory is an alternative explanation for ironic process phenomena.^[22] This theory suggests that humans have an innate need for freedom, and that when their autonomy is threatened they experience an unpleasant emotional arousal – reactance. Reactive thoughts and behaviours arise to guard their autonomy against the threat. In the case of the white bear experiment, participants felt a loss of freedom when they were asked not to think of a white bear. They then thought of the bear even more to reestablish their autonomy.^[9]

In popular culture

Similar ideas appear throughout popular culture and sayings, often with variations on animal and color, such as "It's as hard as trying not to think of a pink rhinoceros."^[23]

Ironic process theory is also the basis for the mind game known as "The Game", which constitutes trying not to think about the Game.

At the end of the 1984 movie Ghostbusters , the characters are asked to think of a form for the coming of Gozer. They instruct each other not to think of anything which sees. One of the team, Ray, thinking of what he considers to be an innocuous thought of the Stay Puft Marshmallow Man, who then terrorizes them.

The idea figures heavily into the episode "White Bear" of British television series Black Mirror .

Related Research Articles

Social psychology is the scientific study of how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. Social psychologists typically explain human behavior as a result of the relationship between mental states and social situations, studying the social conditions under which thoughts, feelings, and behaviors occur, and how these variables influence social interactions.

Feelings are subjective self-contained phenomenal experiences. According to the APA Dictionary of Psychology, a feeling is "a self-contained phenomenal experience"; and feelings are "subjective, evaluative, and independent of the sensations, thoughts, or images evoking them". The term feeling is closely related to, but not the same as, emotion. Feeling may for instance refer to the conscious subjective experience of emotions. The study of subjective experiences is called phenomenology. Psychotherapy generally involves a therapist helping a client understand, articulate, and learn to effectively regulate the client's own feelings, and ultimately to take responsibility for the client's experience of the world. Feelings are sometimes held to be characteristic of embodied consciousness.

In the field of psychology, cognitive dissonance is the perception of contradictory information and the mental toll of it. Relevant items of information include a person's actions, feelings, ideas, beliefs, values, and things in the environment. Cognitive dissonance is typically experienced as psychological stress when persons participate in an action that goes against one or more of those things. According to this theory, when an action or idea is psychologically inconsistent with the other, people do all in their power to change either so that they become consistent. The discomfort is triggered by the person's belief clashing with new information perceived, wherein the individual tries to find a way to resolve the contradiction to reduce their discomfort.

Psychology is an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of human mental functions and behavior. Occasionally, in addition or opposition to employing the scientific method, it also relies on symbolic interpretation and critical analysis, although these traditions have tended to be less pronounced than in other social sciences, such as sociology. Psychologists study phenomena such as perception, cognition, emotion, personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships. Some, especially depth psychologists, also study the unconscious mind.

In psychoanalytic theory, a defence mechanism is an unconscious psychological operation that functions to protect a person from anxiety-producing thoughts and feelings related to internal conflicts and outer stressors.

A mental block is an uncontrollable suppression or repression of painful or unwanted thoughts/memories. It can also be an inability to continue or complete a train of thought, as in the case of writer's block. In the case of writer's block, many find it helpful to take a break and revisit their topic. Another tactic that is used when people with mental blocks are learning new information is repetition. A similar phenomenon occurs when one cannot solve a problem in mathematics which one would normally consider as simple. Mental blocks can be caused by physical disabilities or simply a lack of focus. Mental blocks are also often used to describe a temporary inability to recall a name or other information. A sudden cessation of speech or a thought process without an immediate observable cause sometimes can be considered a consequence of repression.

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Thought suppression is a psychoanalytical defence mechanism. It is a type of motivated forgetting in which an individual consciously attempts to stop thinking about a particular thought. It is often associated with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). OCD is when a person will repeatedly attempt to prevent or "neutralize" intrusive distressing thoughts centered on one or more obsessions. It is also thought to be a cause of memory inhibition, as shown by research using the think/no think paradigm. Thought suppression is relevant to both mental and behavioral levels, possibly leading to ironic effects that are contrary to intention. Ironic process theory is one cognitive model that can explain the paradoxical effect.

Daniel Merton Wegner was an American social psychologist. He was a professor of psychology at Harvard University and a fellow of both the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was known for applying experimental psychology to the topics of mental control and conscious will, and for originating the study of transactive memory and action identification. In The Illusion of Conscious Will and other works, he argued that the human sense of free will is an illusion.

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The psychology of reasoning is the study of how people reason, often broadly defined as the process of drawing conclusions to inform how people solve problems and make decisions. It overlaps with psychology, philosophy, linguistics, cognitive science, artificial intelligence, logic, and probability theory.

The introspection illusion is a cognitive bias in which people wrongly think they have direct insight into the origins of their mental states, while treating others' introspections as unreliable. The illusion has been examined in psychological experiments, and suggested as a basis for biases in how people compare themselves to others. These experiments have been interpreted as suggesting that, rather than offering direct access to the processes underlying mental states, introspection is a process of construction and inference, much as people indirectly infer others' mental states from their behaviour.

Motivated forgetting is a theorized psychological behavior in which people may forget unwanted memories, either consciously or unconsciously. It is an example of defence mechanism, since these are unconscious or conscious coping techniques used to reduce anxiety arising from unacceptable or potentially harmful impulses thus it can be a defence mechanism in some ways. Defence mechanisms are not to be confused with conscious coping strategies.

Flexibility is a personality trait that describes the extent to which a person can cope with changes in circumstances and think about problems and tasks in novel, creative ways. This trait comes into play when stressors or unexpected events occur, requiring that a person change their stance, outlook, or commitment.

Experiential avoidance (EA) has been broadly defined as attempts to avoid thoughts, feelings, memories, physical sensations, and other internal experiences — even when doing so creates harm in the long run. The process of EA is thought to be maintained through negative reinforcement — that is, short-term relief of discomfort is achieved through avoidance, thereby increasing the likelihood that the avoidance behavior will persist. Importantly, the current conceptualization of EA suggests that it is not negative thoughts, emotions, and sensations that are problematic, but how one responds to them that can cause difficulties. In particular, a habitual and persistent unwillingness to experience uncomfortable thoughts and feelings is thought to be linked to a wide range of problems.

Cognitive inhibition refers to the mind's ability to tune out stimuli that are irrelevant to the task/process at hand or to the mind's current state. Additionally, it can be done either in whole or in part, intentionally or otherwise. Cognitive inhibition in particular can be observed in many instances throughout specific areas of cognitive science.

Expressive suppression is defined as the intentional reduction of the facial expression of an emotion. It is a component of emotion regulation.

Thought stopping (TS) is a cognitive self-control skill that should be used to counter dysfunctional or distressing thoughts, in hopes of interrupting sequences or chains of problem responses. When used with Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), it can act as a distraction, preventing an individual from focusing on their negative thought. Patients can replace a problematic thought with a positive one in order to reduce anxiety and worry. The procedure uses learning principles, such as counterconditioning and punishment. TS can be prescribed to address depression, panic, anxiety and addiction, among other afflictions that involve obsessive thought.

In psychology, control is a person's ability or perception of their ability to affect themselves, others, their conditions, their environment or some other circumstance. Control over oneself or others can extend to the regulation of emotions, thoughts, actions, impulses, memory, attention or experiences. There are several types of control, including:

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References

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↑ Sutton, Jill (9 March 2009). "A Fascination with Fire Is Elementary". WAtoday . Retrieved 2009-03-26.