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The lungs are the primary organs of the respiratory system in humans and other animals including most tetrapods, a few fish, and some snails. In mammals and most other vertebrates, two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart. Their function in the respiratory system is to extract oxygen from the atmosphere and transfer it into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere, in a process of gas exchange. Respiration is driven by different muscular systems in different species. Mammals, reptiles and birds use their different muscles to support and foster breathing. In earlier tetrapods, air was driven into the lungs by the pharyngeal muscles via buccal pumping, a mechanism still seen in amphibians. In humans, the main muscle of respiration that drives breathing is the diaphragm. The lungs also provide airflow that makes vocal sounds including human speech possible.
A bronchus is a passage or airway in the respiratory system that conducts air into the lungs. The first bronchi to branch from the trachea are the right main bronchus and the left main bronchus, also known as the primary bronchi. These are the widest and enter the lungs at each hilum, where they branch into narrower secondary bronchi or lobar bronchi, and these branch into narrower tertiary bronchi or segmental bronchi. Further divisions of the segmental bronchi are known as 4th order, 5th order, and 6th order segmental bronchi, or grouped together as subsegmental bronchi. The bronchi when too narrow to be supported by cartilage are known as bronchioles. No gas exchange takes place in the bronchi.
The azygos vein is a vein running up the right side of the thoracic vertebral column draining itself towards the superior vena cava. It connects the systems of superior vena cava and inferior vena cava and can provide an alternative path for blood to the right atrium when either of the venae cavae is blocked.
In medical or research imaging, an incidental finding is an unanticipated finding which is not related to the original diagnostic inquiry. As with other types of incidental findings, they may represent a diagnostic, ethical, and philosophical dilemma because the significance is unclear. While some coincidental findings may lead to beneficial diagnoses, others may lead to overdiagnosis in the form of unnecessary testing and treatment, i.e. the "cascade effect."
Radiology (X-rays) is used in the diagnosis of tuberculosis. Abnormalities on chest radiographs may be suggestive of, but are never diagnostic of TB, but can be used to rule out pulmonary TB.
Atelectasis is the collapse or closure of a lung resulting in reduced or absent gas exchange. It is usually unilateral, affecting part or all of one lung. It is a condition where the alveoli are deflated down to little or no volume, as distinct from pulmonary consolidation, in which they are filled with liquid. It is often called a collapsed lung, although that term may also refer to pneumothorax.
A pneumonectomy is a surgical procedure to remove a lung. Removal of just one lobe of the lung is specifically referred to as a lobectomy, and that of a segment of the lung as a wedge resection.
Lobectomy means surgical excision of a lobe. This may refer to a lobe of the lung, a lobe of the thyroid (hemithyroidectomy), a lobe of the brain, or a lobe of the liver (hepatectomy).
A bronchopulmonary segment is a portion of lung supplied by a specific segmental bronchus and its vessels. These arteries branch from the pulmonary and bronchial arteries, and run together through the center of the segment. Veins and lymphatic vessels drain along the edges of the segment. The segments are separated from each other by layers of connective tissue that forms them into discrete anatomical and functional units. This separation means that a bronchopulmonary segment can be surgically removed without affecting the function of the others.
In radiology, the tree-in-bud sign is a finding on a CT scan that indicates some degree of airway obstruction.The tree-in-bud sign is a nonspecific imaging finding that implies impaction within bronchioles, the smallest airway passages in the lung. The differential for this finding includes malignant and inflammatory etiologies, either infectious or sterile. This includes fungal infections, mycobacterial infections such as tuberculosis or mycobacterium avium intracellulare, bronchopneumonia, chronic aspiration pneumonia, cystic fibrosis or cellular impaction from bronchovascular spread of malignancy, as can occur with breast cancer, leukemia or lymphoma. It also includes lung manifestations of autoimmune diseases such as Sjögren syndrome or rheumatoid arthritis.
A lung nodule or pulmonary nodule is a relatively small focal density in the lung. A solitary pulmonary nodule (SPN) or coin lesion, is a mass in the lung smaller than 3 centimeters in diameter. There may also be multiple nodules.
Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD) is the recessive form of polycystic kidney disease. It is associated with a group of congenital fibrocystic syndromes. Mutations in the PKHD1 cause ARPKD.
Respiratory bronchiolitis is a lung disease associated with tobacco smoking. In pathology, it is defined by the presence of "smoker's macrophages". When manifesting significant clinical symptoms it is referred to as respiratory bronchiolitis interstitial lung disease (RB-ILD).
In human anatomy, an azygos lobe is a normal anatomical variation of the upper lobe of the right lung. It is seen in 1% of the population. Embryologically, it arises from an anomalous lateral course of the azygos vein, in a pleural septum within the apical segment of the right upper lobe or in other words an azygos lobe is formed when the right posterior cardinal vein, one of the precursors of the azygos vein, fails to migrate over the apex of the lung and penetrates it instead, carrying along two pleural layers that invaginates into the upper portion of the right upper lobe. As it has no bronchi, veins and arteries of its own or corresponding alteration in the segmental architecture of the lung, so it is not a true (misnomer), or even accessory, pulmonary lobe, but rather an anatomically separated part of the upper lobe.
In medicine, the Golden S sign is a sign seen on imaging of the chest that suggests a central lung mass or lung collapse. It was first described by Dr. Ross Golden (1889-1975) in 1925 in association with bronchial carcinoma, but it is also seen in metastatic cancer, enlarged lymph nodes, and collapse of the right upper lobe of the lung.
On a chest X-ray, the sail sign is a radiologic sign that suggests left lower lobe collapse. In children, however, a sail sign could be normal, reflecting the shadow of the thymus.
Ground-glass opacity (GGO) is a finding seen on chest x-ray (radiograph) or computed tomography (CT) imaging of the lungs. It is typically defined as an area of hazy opacification (x-ray) or increased attenuation (CT) due to air displacement by fluid, airway collapse, fibrosis, or a neoplastic process. When a substance other than air fills an area of the lung it increases that area's density. On both x-ray and CT, this appears more grey or hazy as opposed to the normally dark-appearing lungs. Although it can sometimes be seen in normal lungs, common pathologic causes include infections, interstitial lung disease, and pulmonary edema.
Pneumatosis, also known as emphysema, is the abnormal presence of air or other gas within tissues.
Radiation lobectomy is a form of radiation therapy used in interventional radiology to treat liver cancer. It is performed in patients that would be surgical candidates for resection, but cannot undergo surgery due to insufficient remaining liver tissue. It consists of injecting small radioactive beads loaded with yttrium-90 into the hepatic artery feeding the hepatic lobe in which the tumor is located. This is done with the intent of inducing growth in the contralateral hepatic lobe, not dissimilarly from portal vein embolization (PVE).
Fleischner sign is a radiological sign that aids the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism. The sign indicates the dilatation of the proximal pulmonary arteries due to pulmonary embolism. It was named after Felix Fleischner, who first described it. The Fleishner sign is seen both on X-ray and CT scan of chest/thorax.
References
- ↑ Kattan, K. R.; Eyler, W. R.; Felson, B. (March 1980). "The juxtaphrenic peak in upper lobe collapse". Radiology. 134 (3): 763–765. doi:10.1148/radiology.134.3.7355230. ISSN 0033-8419. PMID 7355230 . Retrieved 14 July 2021.
- 1 2 Kumaresh, Athiyappan; Kumar, Mitesh; Dev, Bhawna; Gorantla, Rajani; Sai, PM Venkata; Thanasekaraan, Vijayalakshmi (31 July 2015). "Back to Basics – 'Must Know' Classical Signs in Thoracic Radiology". Journal of Clinical Imaging Science. 5: 43. doi:10.4103/2156-7514.161977. ISSN 2156-7514. PMC 4541161 . PMID 26312141.
- ↑ Cameron, D. C. (November 1993). "The juxtaphrenic peak (Katten's sign) is produced by rotation of an inferior accessory fissure". Australasian Radiology. 37 (4): 332–335. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1673.1993.tb00091.x. ISSN 0004-8461. PMID 8257331 . Retrieved 14 July 2021.
- ↑ Davis, S. D.; Yankelevitz, D. F.; Wand, A.; Chiarella, D. A. (January 1996). "Juxtaphrenic peak in upper and middle lobe volume loss: assessment with CT". Radiology. 198 (1): 143–149. doi:10.1148/radiology.198.1.8539368. PMID 8539368.
- ↑ Konen, E.; Rozenman, J.; Simansky, D. A.; Yellin, A.; Greenberg, I.; Konen, O.; Hertz, M.; Itzchak, Y. (October 2001). "Prevalence of the juxtaphrenic peak after upper lobectomy". AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology. 177 (4): 869–873. doi:10.2214/ajr.177.4.1770869. ISSN 0361-803X. PMID 11566691 . Retrieved 14 July 2021.