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An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections,and antibiotic medications are widely used in the treatment and prevention of such infections. They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. A limited number of antibiotics also possess antiprotozoal activity. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses such as the ones which cause the common cold or influenza. Drugs which inhibit growth of viruses are termed antiviral drugs or antivirals. Antibiotics are also not effective against fungi. Drugs which inhibit growth of fungi are called antifungal drugs.
Antimicrobial resistance occurs when microbes evolve mechanisms that protect them from antimicrobials,which are drugs used to treat infections. This resistance affects all classes of microbes,including bacteria,viruses,protozoa,and fungi. Together,these adaptations fall under the AMR umbrella,posing significant challenges to healthcare worldwide. Misuse and improper management of antimicrobials are primary drivers of this resistance,though it can also occur naturally through genetic mutations and the spread of resistant genes.
A bacteriophage,also known informally as a phage,is a virus that infects and replicates within bacteria and archaea. The term is derived from Ancient Greek φαγεῖν (phagein) 'to devour' and bacteria. Bacteriophages are composed of proteins that encapsulate a DNA or RNA genome,and may have structures that are either simple or elaborate. Their genomes may encode as few as four genes and as many as hundreds of genes. Phages replicate within the bacterium following the injection of their genome into its cytoplasm.
Penicillins are a group of β-lactam antibiotics originally obtained from Penicillium moulds,principally P. chrysogenum and P. rubens. Most penicillins in clinical use are synthesised by P. chrysogenum using deep tank fermentation and then purified. A number of natural penicillins have been discovered,but only two purified compounds are in clinical use:penicillin G and penicillin V. Penicillins were among the first medications to be effective against many bacterial infections caused by staphylococci and streptococci. They are still widely used today for various bacterial infections,though many types of bacteria have developed resistance following extensive use.
A biofilm is a syntrophic community of microorganisms in which cells stick to each other and often also to a surface. These adherent cells become embedded within a slimy extracellular matrix that is composed of extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs). The cells within the biofilm produce the EPS components,which are typically a polymeric combination of extracellular polysaccharides,proteins,lipids and DNA. Because they have a three-dimensional structure and represent a community lifestyle for microorganisms,they have been metaphorically described as "cities for microbes".
Sir Richard Brook Sykes is a British microbiologist,the chair of the Royal Institution,the UK Stem Cell Foundation,and the trustees at King Edward VII's Hospital,and chancellor of Brunel University. As of June 2021,he is chair of the UK's Vaccine Taskforce,where he is responsible for overseeing the delivery of the COVID-19 vaccination programme,including preparations for booster programmes and encouraging vaccine innovation in the UK.
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs),also called host defence peptides (HDPs) are part of the innate immune response found among all classes of life. Fundamental differences exist between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells that may represent targets for antimicrobial peptides. These peptides are potent,broad spectrum antimicrobials which demonstrate potential as novel therapeutic agents. Antimicrobial peptides have been demonstrated to kill Gram negative and Gram positive bacteria,enveloped viruses,fungi and even transformed or cancerous cells. Unlike the majority of conventional antibiotics it appears that antimicrobial peptides frequently destabilize biological membranes,can form transmembrane channels,and may also have the ability to enhance immunity by functioning as immunomodulators.
Cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide (CAMP) is an antimicrobial peptide encoded in the human by the CAMP gene. The active form is LL-37. In humans,CAMP encodes the peptide precursor CAP-18,which is processed by proteinase 3-mediated extracellular cleavage into the active form LL-37.
Acinetobacter baumannii is a typically short,almost round,rod-shaped (coccobacillus) Gram-negative bacterium. It is named after the bacteriologist Paul Baumann. It can be an opportunistic pathogen in humans,affecting people with compromised immune systems,and is becoming increasingly important as a hospital-derived (nosocomial) infection. While other species of the genus Acinetobacter are often found in soil samples,it is almost exclusively isolated from hospital environments. Although occasionally it has been found in environmental soil and water samples,its natural habitat is still not known.
Persister cells are subpopulations of cells that resist treatment,and become antimicrobial tolerant by changing to a state of dormancy or quiescence. Persister cells in their dormancy do not divide. The tolerance shown in persister cells differs from antimicrobial resistance in that the tolerance is not inherited and is reversible. When treatment has stopped the state of dormancy can be reversed and the cells can reactivate and multiply. Most persister cells are bacterial,and there are also fungal persister cells,yeast persister cells,and cancer persister cells that show tolerance for cancer drugs.
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Escherichia coli is a gram-negative,rod-shaped bacterium that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms (endotherms). Most E. coli strains are harmless,but pathogenic varieties cause serious food poisoning,septic shock,meningitis,or urinary tract infections in humans. Unlike normal flora E. coli,the pathogenic varieties produce toxins and other virulence factors that enable them to reside in parts of the body normally not inhabited by E. coli,and to damage host cells. These pathogenic traits are encoded by virulence genes carried only by the pathogens.
Acyldepsipeptide or cyclic acyldepsipeptide (ADEP) is a class of potential antibiotics first isolated from bacteria and act by deregulating the ClpP protease. Natural ADEPs were originally found as products of aerobic fermentation in Streptomyces hawaiiensis,A54556A and B,and in the culture broth of Streptomyces species,enopeptin A and B. ADEPs are of great interest in drug development due to their antibiotic properties and thus are being modified in attempt to achieve greater antimicrobial activity.
Teixobactin is a peptide-like secondary metabolite of some species of bacteria,that kills some gram-positive bacteria. It appears to belong to a new class of antibiotics,and harms bacteria by binding to lipid II and lipid III,important precursor molecules for forming the cell wall.
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Eleftheria terrae is a recently discovered Gram-negative bacterium. E. terrae is a temporary name for the organism,as it was only discovered in 2014 and is still undergoing scientific study. It was found to produce a previously unknown antibiotic named teixobactin. The discovery of E. terrae could represent a new age of antibiotics,as teixobactin is the first new antibiotic discovered since the synthetic era of the 1980s. Prior research has indicated that other uncultivable bacteria like E. terrae have potential in the development of new antimicrobial agents.
Enduracididine is a non-proteinogenic α-amino acid that is a cyclic analogue of arginine. It is not genetically encoded into peptide sequences,but rather is generated as a posttranslational modification.
Slava Epstein is an American academic,researcher and entrepreneur working in the field of Microbial ecology. He is currently a professor in the biology department of Northeastern University and co-founder of NovoBiotic Pharmaceuticals. As a researcher his most covered contribution is the development of the Isolation chip (iChip) and the discovery of a new antibiotic,Teixobactin. Epstein's research has been published in many leading scientific journals including Nature and Science.
A. C. Matin was a Pakistani-American microbiologist,immunologist,academician and researcher. He was a professor of microbiology and immunology at Stanford University School of Medicine.
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References
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- ↑ "AAAS Honors Accomplished Scientists as 2018 Elected Fellows".
- ↑ "This Solver of Scientific Paradoxes Has Been Named a Fellow of the American Association For the Advancement of Science". 27 November 2018.
- ↑ Lewis, Kim. "Kim Lewis, Ph.D." COS Northeastern University.
- ↑ Keren, I.; Wu, Y.; Inocencio, J.; Mulcahy, L. R.; Lewis, K. (2013). "Killing by bactericidal antibiotics does not depend on reactive oxygen species". Science. 339 (6124): 1213–1216. doi:10.1126/science.1232688. PMID 23471410. S2CID 24746892.
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- ↑ Manuse, Sylvie; Shan, Yue; Canas-Duarte, Silvia J.; Bakshi, Somenath; Sun, Wei-Sheng; Mori, Hirotada; Paulson, Johan; Lewis, Kim (April 19, 2021). "Bacterial persisters are a stochastically formed subpopulation of low-energy cells". PLoS Biology. 19 (e3001194). PMC 8084331 .
- ↑ Conlon, B.; Nakayasu, E.; Fleck, L.; Lafleur, M.; Isabella, V.; Coleman, K.; Leonard, S.; Smith, R.; Adkins, J.; Lewis, K. (2013). "PMC4031760". Nature. 503 (7476): 365–370. doi:10.1038/nature12790. PMC 4031760 . PMID 24226776.
- ↑ Kaeberlein, T.; Lewis, K.; Epstein, S. S. (2002). "Isolating "uncultivable" microorganisms in pure culture in a simulated natural environment". Science. 296 (5570): 1127–1129. doi:10.1126/science.1070633. PMID 12004133. S2CID 28437864.
- ↑ d'Onofrio, A.; Crawford, J. M.; Stewart, E. J.; Witt, K.; Gavrish, E.; Epstein, S.; Clardy, J.; Lewis, K. (2010). "Siderophores from Neighboring Organisms Promote the Growth of Uncultured Bacteria". Chemistry & Biology. 17 (3): 254–264. doi:10.1016/j.chembiol.2010.02.010. PMC 2895992 . PMID 20338517.
- ↑ Fenn, Katherin; Strandwitz, Philip; Stewart, Eric J.; Dimise, Eric; Rubin, Sarah; Gurubacharya, Shreya; Clardy, Jon; Lewis, Kim (December 20, 2017). "Quinones are growth factors for the human gut microbiota". Microbiome. 5. PMID 29262868.
- ↑ Strandwitz, Philip; Kim, Ki Hyun; Terekhova, Darya; Liu, Joanne K.; Sharma, Anukriti; Levering, Jennifer; McDonald, Daniel; Dietrich, David; Rmadhar, Timothy R.; Lekbua, Asama; Nroue, Nader; Liston, Conor; Stewart, Eric J.; Dubin, Marc J.; Zengler, Karsten; Knight, Rob; Gilbert, Jack A.; Clardy, Jon; Lewis, Kim (December 10, 2018). "GABA-modulating bacteria of the human gut microbiota". Nature Microbiology. 4: 396–403.
- ↑ Ling, L. L.; Schneider, T.; Peoples, A. J.; Spoering, A. L.; Engels, I.; Conlon, B. P.; Mueller, A.; Schäberle, T. F.; Hughes, D. E.; Epstein, S.; Jones, M.; Lazarides, L.; Steadman, V. A.; Cohen, D. R.; Felix, C. R.; Fetterman, K. A.; Millett, W. P.; Nitti, A. G.; Zullo, A. M.; Chen, C.; Lewis, K. (2015). "A new antibiotic kills pathogens without detectable resistance". Nature. 517 (7535): 455–459. doi:10.1038/nature14098. PMC 7414797 . PMID 25561178.
- ↑ Shukla, Rhythm; Lavore, Francesca; Maity, Sourav; Derks, Maik G. N.; Jones, Chelsea R.; Vermeulen, Bram J.A.; Melcrova, Adela; Morris, Michael A.; Becker, Lea Marie; Wang, Xiaoqi; Kumar, Raj; Mediros-Silva, Joao; van Beekveld, Roy A. M.; Ronvin, Alexandre M.J.J.; Lorent, Joseph H.; Lelli, Moreno; Nowick, James S.; MacGillavry, Harold D.; Peoples, Aaron J.; Spoering, Amy L.; Ling, Losee L; Hughes, Dallas; Roos, Wouter H.; Breukink, Eefjan; Lewis, Kim; Weingarth, Markus (August 3, 2022). "Teixobactin kills bacteria by a two-pronged attack on the cell development". Nature. 608 (7922): 390–396. PMID 35922513.
- ↑ Bohannon, John (December 14, 2015). "Which studies got the most media buzz in 2015?". Science. 10.1126.
- ↑ Shukla, Rhythm; Peoples, Aaron J.; Ludwig, Kevin C.; Maity, Sourav; Derks, Maik G. N.; DeBenedetti, Stefania; Krueger, Annika M.; Vermeulen, Bram J.A.; Harbig, Theresa; Lavore, Francesca; Kumar, Raj; Honorato, Rodrigo V.; Grein, Fabian; Nieselt, Kay; Liu, Yangping; Bonvin, Alexandre M.J. J.; Baldus, Marc; Kubitscheck, Ulrich; Breukink, Eefjan; Achorn, Catherine; Nitti, Anthony; Schwalen, Christopher J.; Spoering, Amy L.; Ling, Losee; Hughes, Dallas; Lelli, Moreno; Roos, Wouter H.; Lewis, Kim; Schneider, Tanja; Weingarth, Markus (September 14, 2023). "An antibiotic from an uncultured bacterium binds to an immutable target". Cell. 186 (e4027): 4059–4073.
- ↑ Leimer, Nadja; Wu, Xiaoqian; Imai, Yu; Morrissette, Madeleine; Pitt, Norman; Favre-Godal, Quentin; Iinishi, Akira; Jain, Samta; Caboni, Mariaelena; Leus, Inga V.; Bonifay, Vincent; Niles, Samantha; Bargabos, Rachel; Ghiglieri, Meghan; Corsetti, Rachel; Krumpoch, Megan; Fox, Gabriel; Son, Sangkeun; Klepacki, Dorota; Polikanov, Yury S.; Freliech, Cecily A.; McCarthy, Julie E.; Edmondson, Diane G.; Norris, Steven J.; D'Onofrio, Anthony; Hu, Linden T.; Zgurskaya, Helen I.; Lewis, Kim (October 14, 2021). "A selective antibiotic for Lyme disease". Cell. 184 (21).
- ↑ Imai, Y.; Meyer, K. J.; Iinishi, A.; Favre-Godal, Q.; Green, R.; Manuse, S.; Caboni, M.; Mori, M.; Niles, S.; Ghiglieri, M.; Honrao, C.; Ma, X.; Guo, J. J.; Makriyannis, A.; Linares-Otoya, L.; Böhringer, N.; Wuisan, Z. G.; Kaur, H.; Wu, R.; Mateus, A.; Typas, A.; Savitski, M. M.; Espinoza, J. L.; O'Rourke, A.; Nelson, K. E.; Hiller, S.; Noinaj, N.; Schäberle, T. F.; d'Onofrio, A.; Lewis, K. (2019). "A new antibiotic selectively kills Gram-negative pathogens". Nature. 576 (7787): 459–464. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1791-1. PMC 7188312 . PMID 31747680.
- ↑ Kaur, Hundeep; Jakob, Roman P.; Marzinek, Jan K.; Green, Robert; Imai, Yu; Reddy Bolla, Jani; Agustoni, Elia; Robinson, Carol V.; Bond, Peter J.; Lewis, Kim; Maier, Timm; Hiller, Sebastian (April 14, 2021). "The antibiotic darobactin mimics a β-strand to inhibit outer membrane insertase". Nature. 593: 125–129. PMID 33854236.
- ↑ "The Faculty".
- ↑ "Six Northeastern Professors Named to List of Highly Cited Researchers Around The Globe". 9 January 2019.
