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The Latin language has a robust diminutive-forming system. There are many diminutive suffixes: those in calculus, axilla, fistula, and areola to start. There is often more than one correct way to form a diminutive, and many more incorrect ones. [1]
The masculine, feminine, and neuter diminutives often end in -us, -a, and -um.
There are exceptions. These masculine words end in -a:
Many have a vowel, followed by one or two ls, followed by the endings just mentioned. Here we see stem + 'ul' + ending.
| Example | ||
|---|---|---|
| Nomative | diminutive alterius generis | diminutive eiusdem generis |
| ac-us (f.) | aculeus (m.) | |
| calx, calc-is (f.) | calc-ulus (m.) | |
| can-is, -is (m./f.) | can-īcula (f.) | |
| catēn-a (f.) | catēl-lus (m.) | catēl-la (f.) / catēn-ula (f.) |
| cicer, -is (n.) | cicer-cula (f.) | |
| convent-us, -ūs (m.) | convent-iculum (n.) | |
| curr-us, -ūs (m.) | curr-iculum (n.) | |
| diē-s (m./f.) | diē-cula (f.) | |
| galēr-us (m.) | galēr-iculum (n.) | |
| gust-us, -ūs (m.) | gust-ulum (n.) | |
| linter, lintr-is (f.) | lintr-iculus (m.) | |
| nŭx, nŭc-is (f.) | nŭc-(u)leus (m.) | nŭc-ula (f.) |
| pistrīn-um (n.) | pistrīl-la (f.) | |
| rān-a (f.) | rān-unculus (m.) | rān-ula (f.) |
| statu-a (f.) | stat-unculum (n.) | |
| ungu-is, -is (m.) | ung-ula (f.) | ungu-iculus (m.) |
| vepr-ēs, -is (m.) | vepr-ēcula (f.) | |
The rules can be a bit involved. The diminutive depends on the gender, declination (first, second, etc.) and the root's ending.
| Stem termination | Diminutive formation | Examples | Vide : | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Simplex form | Diminutive 1 | diminutive 2 | |||
| - | + -ul- | hort-us | hort-ul-us | hic | |
| -e- / -i- | + -ol- | calce-us | calce-ol-us | hic | |
| -ul- | -ul- > -ell- | ocul-us | ocel-l-us | hic | |
| -ul- > -ill- | bacul-um | bacil-l-um | |||
| muta + r | -r- > -ell- | umbr-a | umbel-l-a | hic | |
| -er- | -er- > -ell- | oper-a | opel-l-a | oper-ul-a | hic |
| -ēn- | -ēn- > -ēll- | catēn-a | catēl-l-a | catēn-ul-a | hic |
| -ĭn- | -ĭn- > -ell- | pāgĭn-a | pāgel-l-a | pāgĭn-ul-a | hic |
| -īn- | -īn- > -īll- | crumīn-a | crumīl-l-a | hic | |
| vāgīn-a | vāgīn-ul-a | ||||
| -ōn- | -ōn- > -ōll- | corōn-a | corōl-l-a | corōn-ul-a | hic |
| -gn- | -gn- > -gill- | pugn-us | pugil-l-us | hic | |
| agn-us | agn-ell -us | ||||
| -mn- | -mn- > -mell- | column-a | columel-l-a | hic | |
| aerumn-a | aerumn-ul-a | ||||
| -aul- -āl- -ēl- | -aul- > -auxill- -āl- > -axill- -ēl- > -exill- | paul-us | pauxil-l-us | paul-ul-us | hic |
In general the diminutive of nouns of the first or second declension which end in obstruents or the semivowel /w/ (written <v>) take the suffix -ulus/-ula/-ulum (depending on gramatical gender).
| Classis | Regular | Irregular | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| principale | deminutive | principale | deminutive | |
| Regula principalis | vīc-us | vīc-ulus | ||
| fīc-us (f.) | fīc-ula | |||
| port-a | port-ula | |||
| scurr-a (m.) | scurr-ula (m.) | |||
| crust-um | crust-ulum | |||
| cerv-a | cervula | |||
| rīvus | rīvulus | |||
Nouns of the first or second declension whose stems end in a vowel typically take -ola, -olus, or -olum depending on if they are of the feminine, masculine, or neuter gender respectively. Words ending in the glide /w/ (written v), take -ul- like other stems ending in consonants (cf. cerva/cervula).
| Classis | Regular | Irregular | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| stem | diminutiive | stem | diminutive | |
| Regula principalis | gladi-us | gladi-olus | ||
| besti-a | besti-ola | |||
| palli-um | palli-olum | |||
| calce-us | calce-olus | |||
| āre-a | āre-ola | hirne-a | hirn-ula | |
| horre-um | horre-olum | |||
In the first declanation, -ia can become =illa or =ola. (Lucia → Lucilla, sed Tullia → Tulliola).
Nouns whose stems end in -ul- (either the root itself, or due to the noun in question being a diminutive already), when their diminutive is formed, the stem-final, -ul- changes either to -ell- or -ill-. It is difficult to find any regular correspondence between the context surrounding -ul- and whether the diminutive's stem ends in -ell- or -ill-.
In the table below, those which are diminutives already have the original stem listed under "principle". In cases where the diminutive's meaning is very different from that of the original noun, the noun in question is enclosed with parentheses.
| Stems ending in: | - (Principale) | Base single diminutive | deminutivum double-diminutive | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| in -ELL- | in -ILL- | |||
| -B(UL)- | - | fābul-a | fābell-a | |
| - | tābul-a | tābell-a | ||
| -C(UL)- | - | ancill-a | ||
| - | bacul-um | bacill-um | ||
| - | crepitācul-um | crepitācill-um | ||
| cōdex | cōdicul-us | cōdicill-us | ||
| mollis (adi.) | mollicul-us (adi.) | mollicell-us (adi.) | ||
| (pēnis) | pēnicul-us | pēnicill-us | ||
| avis | avicul-a | aucell-a | ||
| locus | locul-us | locell-us | ||
| - | ocul-us | ocell-us | ||
| - | pōcul-um | pōcill-um | ||
| bucca | buccul-a | buccell-a | ||
| porcus | porcul-us | porcell-us | ||
| furca | furcul-a | furcill-a | ||
| -D(UL)- | haedus | haedul-us | haedill-us | |
| -F(UL)- | offa | offul-a | ŏfell-a | |
| -G(UL)- | - | angul-us | angell-us | |
| - | singul-us (adi.) | singill-atim (adv.) | ||
| - | cingul-um | cingill-um | ||
| (unguis) | ungul-a | ungell-a | ||
| -M(UL)- | mamma | mammul-a | mămill-a | |
| -N(UL)- | āgnus) | āgnell-us | ||
| (ānus) | ānul-us | ānell-us | ||
| -P(UL)- | - | manipul-us | manipell-us | |
| pūpus/-a | pūpul-us/-a | pūpill-us/-a | ||
| -R(UL)- | murmur | murmurill-um | ||
| turtur | turturill-a | |||
| -S(UL)- | caps-a | capsul-a | capsell-a | |
| pūsus | pŭsill-us | |||
| -T(UL)- | aries | arietill-us | ||
| - | catul-us/-a | catell-us/-a | ||
| cist-a | cistul-a | cistell-a | ||
| pūtus | pŭtill-us | |||
| - | situl-a | sitell-a | ||
The double diminutives of words ending in -er, or -in-, are usually formed by adding -ul- to the end of the existing diminutive..
| Context | Root | Single Diminutive | Double Diminutive |
|---|---|---|---|
| -in- | asin-us | asel-lus | asell-ulus |
| -er- | culter | cultel-lus | cult-ell-ulus |
| -ul- | ocul-us | ocellus | ocellulus |
| Stems ending in: | Examples | Following the general rule | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| principale | deminutivum | principale | deminutivum | |
| cons. + r | libĕr, libr-i | libel-lus | ||
| umbr-a | umbel-la | |||
| fenestr-a | fenestel-la | fenestr-a | fenestr-ula | |
| sacr-um | sacel-lum | |||
| -ĕr- | misĕr, misĕr-i (adi.) | misel-lus | misĕr, misĕr-i (adi.) | misĕr-ulus |
| tenĕr, tenĕr-i (adi.) | tenel-lus | tenĕr, tenĕr-i (adi.) | tenĕr-ulus | |
| puĕr, puĕr-i | puel-lus | puĕr, puĕr-i | puĕr-ulus | |
| opĕr-a | opel-la | opĕr-a | opĕr-ula | |
| tessĕr-a | tessel-la | tessĕr-a | tessĕr-ula | |
| camĕr-a | camel-la | littĕr-a | littĕr-ula | |
| patĕr-a | patel-la | |||
| -ŏr- | amphŏr-a | ampul-la | ||
| -ŭr- | satŭr, satŭr-i (adi.) | satul-lus | ||
| Stirpes exeuntes in: | Exempla | Regulam generalem secuta | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| principale | deminutivum | principale | deminutivum | |
| -ēn- | catēn-a | catēl-la /-lus (m.) | catēn-a | catēn-ula |
| cēn-a | cēn-ula | |||
| habēn-a | habēn-ula | |||
| harēn-a | harēn-ula | |||
| vēn-a | vēn-ula | |||
| ahēn-um | ahēn-ulum | |||
| -ĭn- | asĭn-us/-a | asel-lus/-la | domĭn-us | domĭn-ulus |
| gemĭn-us | gemel-lus | |||
| fēmĭn-a | fēmel-la | sarcĭn-a | sarcĭn-ula | |
| fiscĭn-a | fiscel-la | fuscĭn-a | fuscĭn-ula | |
| pāgĭn-a | pāgel-la | pāgĭn-a | pāgĭn-ula | |
| lāmĭn-a | lāmel-la | |||
| patĭn-a | patel-la | |||
| -īn- | bovīn-us (adi.) | bovīl-lus | gallīn-a | gallīn-ula |
| catīn-us | catīl-lus | piscīn-a | piscīn-ula | |
| lupīn-us | lupīl-lus | spīn-a | spīn-ula | |
| crumīn-a | crumīl-la | vāgīn-a | vāgīn-ula | |
| salīn-um | salīl-lum | |||
| pulvīn-us | pulvīl-lus | |||
| pistrīn-um | pistrīl-la (f.) | |||
| vīn-um | vīl-lum | |||
| -ōn- | corōn-a | corōl-la | corōn-a | corōn-ula |
| persōn-a | persōl-la | caupōn-a | caupōn-ula | |
| zōn-a | zōn-ula | |||
| -gn- | pugn-us | pugil-lus | agn-us | agn-ellus |
| sign-um | sigil-lum | |||
| tign-um | tigil-lum | |||
| -mn- | column-a | columel-la | aerumn-a | aerumn-ula |
| lāmn-a | lāmel-la | lāmn-a | lāmn-ula | |
| scamn-um | scabel-lum scabil-lum scamil-lus (m.) | domn-a | domn-ula | |
| Stirpes exeuntes in: | Exempla | Excepta | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| principale | deminutivum | principale | deminutivum | |
| -aul- -āl- -ēl- | paul-us (adi.) | pauxil-lus | paul-us (adi.) | paul-ulus |
| pāl-us | paxil-lus | |||
| tāl-us | taxil-lus | |||
| āl-a | axil-la | āl-a | āl-icula | |
| māl-a | maxil-la | |||
| vēl-um | vexil-lum | |||
| deminutiva exeuntia in: | Exempla | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| principale | deminutivum irregulare | deminutivum regulare | |
| -CUL- | lagoen-a / lagōna | lagun-cula | |
| -ĀCUL- | vern-a (m.) | vern-āculus (m. / adi.) | vern-ula (m.) |
| -ICUL- | āl-a | āl-icula | axil-la |
| bland-us (adi.) | bland-iculus | bland-ulus | |
| galēr-us (m.) | galēr-iculum (n.) | ||
| montān-us (adi.) | montān-iculus | ||
| pann-us | pann-iculus | pann-ulus | |
| pugn-a | pugn-icula | ||
| thyrs-us | thyrs-iculus | ||
| uter-us | utr-iculus | ||
| -IOL- | sigill-um | sigill-iolum | |
| tympan-um | tympan-iolum | ||
| -UNCUL- | av-us | av-unculus | |
| lemb-us | lemb-unculus | ||
| mendāci-um | mendāci-unculum | ||
| petas-us | petas-unculus | ||
| rān-a (f.) | rān-unculus (m.) | rān-ula (f.) | |
| statu-a (f.) | stat-unculum (n.) | ||
| tuguri-um | tuguri-unculum | tuguri-olum | |
| -USCUL- | rām-us | rām-usculus | rām-ulus |
| -ULEUS | equ-us | ec-uleus | ec-ulus / equolus |
in -es, -is & -e
| Nomina exeuntia in: | Formatio deminutivi | Exempla | Vide : | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| principale | deminutivum 1 | deminutivum 2 | |||
| -ēs | -ēcul- | vulp-ēs | vulp-ēcul-a | hic | |
| -is | -icul- | nāv-is | nāv-icul-a | hic | |
| -ĕ | -icul- | rēt-ĕ | rēt-icul-um | hic | |
More nouns, third declination
| Stirpes exeuntes in: | Formatio deminutivi | Exempla | Vide : | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| principale | deminutivum 1 | deminutivum 2 | |||
| -c- / -g- | + -ul- | făx, făc-is | făc-ul-a | hic | |
| -t- / -d- | + -ul- | nepōs, nepōt-is | nepōt-ul-us | hic | |
| + -icul- | anăs, anăt-is | anăt-icul-a | |||
| -p- / -b- | + -icul- | plēbs, plēb-is | plēb-icul-a | hic | |
| -n- | -ōn- > -uncul- | ratio, ratiōn-is | ratiun-cul-a | hic | |
| -ĭn- > -uncul- | homo, homĭn-is | homun-cul-us | |||
| -r(r)- / -l(l)- | + -cul- | mulier, -is | mulier-cul-a | hic | |
| -r- < -s- | + -cul- | mūs, mūr-is | mūs-cul-us | hic | |
| rūmor, rūmōris | rūmus-cul-us | ||||
| plures cons. | + -icul- | venter, ventr-is | ventr-icul-us | hic | |
| Nomina exeuntia in: | Exempla | Excepta | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| principale | deminutivum | principale | deminutivum | |
| -ēs, -is | vulp-ēs, -is | vulp-ēcula | saepēs, -is | saep-icula |
| nūb-ēs, -is | nūb-ēcula | |||
| vepr-ēs, -is (m.) | vepr-ēcula (f.) | |||
| Nomina exeuntia in: | Exempla | Excepta | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| principale | deminutivum | principale | deminutivum | |
| -is, -is (m./f.) -ĕ, -is (n.) | turr-is, -is | turr-icula | vall-is, -is | vall-ēcula |
| nāv-is, -is | nāv-icula | vīt-is, -is | vīt-ēcula (iuxta vīt-icula) | |
| ign-is, -is | ign-iculus | corb-is | corb-ula | |
| fort-is, -is (adi.) | fort-iculus | virid-is, -is (adi.) | virid-ulus | |
| rēt-ĕ, -is (n.) | rēt-iculum | ass-is, -is | ass-ula | |
| can-is, -is (m./f.) | can-īcula (f.) | iuven-is, -is | iuven-culus | |
| cut-is, -is | cut-īcula | |||
| febr-is, -is | febr-īcula | |||
| Stirpes exeuntes in: | Exempla | Excepta | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| principale | deminutivum | principale | deminutivum | |
| -c- -g- | făx, făc-is | făc-ula | ||
| nŭx, nŭc-is (f.) | nŭc-ula | nŭx, nŭc-is (f.) | nŭc(u)leus (m.) | |
| rēx, rēg-is | rēg-ulus | |||
| vōx, vōc-is | vōc-ula | |||
| audāx, audāc-is (adi.) | audāc-ulus | |||
| lanx, lanc-is | lanc-ula | lanx, lanc-is | lanc-icula | |
| falx, falc-is | falc-ula | falx, falc-is | falc-icula | |
| calx, calc-is (f.) | calc-ulus (m.) | |||
| Stirpes exeuntes in: | deminutiva in -ul- | deminutiva in -icul- | Formae irregulares | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| principale | deminutivum | principale | deminutivum | principale | deminutivum | |
| -t- -d- | nepōs, nepōt-is | nepōt-ulus | pyxis, pyxid-is | pyxid-icula | lapis, lapid-is | lapil-lus |
| aetās, aetāt-is | aetāt-ula | anăs, anăt-is | anăt-icula | cor, cordis | cor-culum | |
| civitās, civitāt-is | civitāt-ula | lucuns, lucunt-is | lucun-culus | |||
| mercēs, mercēd-is | mercēd-ula | pēs, pĕd-is | pĕd-iculus | pēs, pĕd-is | pĕd-iolus / pĕt-iolus | |
| caput, capit-is | capit-ulum | sors, sort-is | sort-icula | |||
| glans, gland-is | gland-ula | puls, pult-is | pult-icula | |||
| valens, valent-is (adi.) | valent-ulus | dens, dent-is | dent-iculus | |||
| infans, infant-is (adi.) | infant-ulus | lens, lent-is | lent-icula | |||
| blandiloquens, ~nt-is (adi.) | blandiloquent-ulus | fons, font-is | font-iculus | |||
| adulescens, ~nt-is (adi.) | adulescent-ulus | pons, pont-is | pont-iculus | |||
| ariēs, ariĕt-is | ariĕt-illus | pars, part-is | part-icula | |||
| Stirpes exeuntes in: | Exempla | Excepta | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| principale | deminutivum | principale | deminutivum | |
| -p-? -b- | plēbs, plēb-is | plēb-icula | (plēbēs, -is) | plēb-ēcula |
| scrobs, scrob-is | scrob-iculus | |||
| trabs, trab-is | trab-icula | (trabēs, -is) | trab-ēcula | |
| Stirpes exeuntes in: | Exemplars | Exceptions | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| base | diminutive | base | diminutive | |
| -n- | ratio, ratiōn-is | ratiun-cula | ||
| sermo, sermōn-is | sermun-culus | |||
| lēno, lēnōn-is | lēnun-culus | lēno, lēnōn-is | lēnul-lus | |
| homo, homĭn-is | homun-culus | homo, homĭn-is | homul-lus / homun-cio, ~ōnis | |
| caro, carn-is | carun-cula | |||
| pectĕn, pectĭn-is | pectun-culus | flumĕn, flumĭn-is | flum-icellum | |
| sanguis, sanguĭn-is | sangun-culus | |||
| Stirpes exeuntes in: | Exempla | Excepta | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| principale | deminutivum | principale | deminutivum | |
| -r(r)- | later, later-is | later-culus | later, later-is | later-iculus |
| mulier, mulier-is | mulier-cula | fūr, fūr-is | fūr-unculus | |
| tūber, tūber-is | tūber-culum | turtŭr, turtŭr-is (m./f.) | turtŭr-illa | |
| cicer, cicer-is (n.) | cicer-cula (f.) | murmŭr, murmŭr-is (n.) | murmŭr-illum | |
| pauper, pauper-is (adi.) | pauper-culus | iecŭr, iecŏr-is | iecus-culum | |
| amātor, amātōr-is | amātor-culus | |||
| soror, sorōr-is | soror-cula | |||
| vēr, vēr-is | vēr-culum | |||
| far, farr-is | far-culum | |||
| -l(l)- | mel, mell-is | mel-culum | ||
| -s- | vās, vās-is | vās-culum | ||
| Stirpes exeuntes in: | Exempla | Excepta | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| principale | deminutivum | principale | deminutivum | |
| -r- ex -s- | mās, măr-is (m. subst.) | mās-culus (adi.) | ||
| pulvis, pulvĕr-is | pulvis-culus | |||
| flōs, flōr-is | flōs-culus | |||
| ōs, ōr-is | ōs-culum | |||
| mūs, mūr-is | mūs-culus | |||
| mūnŭs, mūnĕr-is | mūnus-culum | vetus, vetĕr-is (adi.) | vet-ulus | |
| corpŭs, corpŏr-is | corpus-culum | |||
| meliŏr, meliōr-is (adi.) | melius-culus | |||
| rūmŏr, rūmōr-is | rūmus-culus | |||
| arbŏr, arbŏr-is | arbus-cula | |||
| 'iecur' | iecŭr, iecŏr-is | iecus-culum | ||
| Stirpes exeuntes in: | Exempla | Excepta | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| principale | deminutivum | principale | deminutivum | |
| -u- | sūs, sŭ-is (m./f.) | sŭ-cula (f.) | ||
| -v- | bōs, bŏv-is (m./f.) | bū-cula (f.) | ||
| Stems ending with: | Exempla | Excepta | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| principale | deminutivum | principale | deminutivum | |
| two or more consonants | venter, ventr-is | ventr-iculus | păter, pătr-is | păter-culus |
| linter, lintr-is (f.) | lintr-iculus (m.) | māter, mātr-is | māter-cula | |
| uter, utr-is | utr-iculus | frāter, frātr-is | frāter-culus / frātel-lus | |
| ācer, ācr-is (adi.) | ācr-iculus | |||
| os, oss-is | oss-iculum | |||
| Classis | Exempla | Excepta | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| principale | deminutivum | principale | deminutivum | |
| Regula generalis | art-us | art-iculus | lac-us | lac-usculus |
| vers-us | vers-iculus | |||
| convent-us (m.) | convent-iculum (n.) | gust-us (m.) | gust-ulum (n.) | |
| curr-us (m.) | curr-iculum (n.) | |||
| an-us (f.) | an-icula | dom-us (f.) | dom-uncula /-uscula | |
| man-us (f.) | man-icula | ac-us (f.) | aculeus (m.) | |
| corn-u | corn-iculum | |||
| gen-u | gen-iculum | |||
In the fifth declension, Latin nouns generally take -cula.
| Classis | Exempla | Excepta | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| principale | deminutivum | principale | deminutivum | |
| Regula principalis | diē-s (m./f.) | diē-cula (f.) | ||
| rē-s (f.) | rē-cula (f.) | rē-s (f.) | rēs-cula (f.) | |
| spē-s (f.) | spē-cula (f.) | |||
| plēbē-s (f.) | plēbē-cula (f.) | |||
Latin declension is the set of patterns according to which Latin words are declined—that is, have their endings altered to show grammatical case, number and gender. Nouns, pronouns, and adjectives are declined, and a given pattern is called a declension. There are five declensions, which are numbered and grouped by ending and grammatical gender. Each noun follows one of the five declensions, but some irregular nouns have exceptions.
In grammar, the vocative case is a grammatical case which is used for a noun that identifies a person being addressed or occasionally for the noun modifiers of that noun. A vocative expression is an expression of direct address by which the identity of the party spoken to is set forth expressly within a sentence. For example, in the sentence "I don't know, John," John is a vocative expression that indicates the party being addressed, as opposed to the sentence "I don't know John", in which "John" is the direct object of the verb "know".
In grammar, the locative case is a grammatical case which indicates a location. It corresponds vaguely to the English prepositions "in", "on", "at", and "by". The locative case belongs to the general local cases, together with the lative and separative case.
Latin is a heavily inflected language with largely free word order. Nouns are inflected for number and case; pronouns and adjectives are inflected for number, case, and gender; and verbs are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood. The inflections are often changes in the ending of a word, but can be more complicated, especially with verbs.
In Indo-European studies, a thematic vowel or theme vowel is the vowel *e or *o from ablaut placed before the ending of a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) word. Nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Indo-European languages with this vowel are thematic, and those without it are athematic. Used more generally, a thematic vowel is any vowel found at the end of the stem of a word.
Catalan grammar, the morphology and syntax of the Catalan language, is similar to the grammar of most other Romance languages. Catalan is a relatively synthetic, fusional language.
Lithuanian grammar retains many archaic features from Proto-Balto-Slavic that have been lost in other Balto-Slavic languages.
This page describes the declension of nouns, adjectives and pronouns in Slovene. For information on Slovene grammar in general, see Slovene grammar.
Swedish is descended from Old Norse. Compared to its progenitor, Swedish grammar is much less characterized by inflection. Modern Swedish has two genders and no longer conjugates verbs based on person or number. Its nouns have lost the morphological distinction between nominative and accusative cases that denoted grammatical subject and object in Old Norse in favor of marking by word order. Swedish uses some inflection with nouns, adjectives, and verbs. It is generally a subject–verb–object (SVO) language with V2 word order.
The grammar of Old English differs greatly from Modern English, predominantly being much more inflected. As a Germanic language, Old English has a morphological system similar to that of the Proto-Germanic reconstruction, retaining many of the inflections thought to have been common in Proto-Indo-European and also including constructions characteristic of the Germanic daughter languages such as the umlaut.
Ukrainian grammar is complex and characterised by a high degree of inflection; moreover, it has a relatively free word order, although the dominant arrangement is subject–verb–object (SVO). Ukrainian grammar describes its phonological, morphological, and syntactic rules. Ukrainian has seven grammatical cases and two numbers for its nominal declension and two aspects, three tenses, three moods, and two voices for its verbal conjugation. Adjectives agree in number, gender, and case with their nouns.
Proto-Indo-European nominals include nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. Their grammatical forms and meanings have been reconstructed by modern linguists, based on similarities found across all Indo-European languages. This article discusses nouns and adjectives; Proto-Indo-European pronouns are treated elsewhere.
Lithuanian has a declension system that is similar to declension systems in ancient Indo-European languages, such as Sanskrit, Latin or Ancient Greek. It is one of the most complicated declension systems among modern Indo-European and modern European languages.
Gothic is an inflected language, and as such its nouns, pronouns, and adjectives must be declined in order to serve a grammatical function. A set of declined forms of the same word pattern is called a declension. There are five grammatical cases in Gothic with a few traces of an old sixth instrumental case.
In Ancient Greek, all nouns are classified according to grammatical gender and are used in a number. According to their function in a sentence, their form changes to one of the five cases. The set of forms that a noun will take for each case and number is determined by the declension that it follows.
Old Norse has three categories of verbs and two categories of nouns. Conjugation and declension are carried out by a mix of inflection and two nonconcatenative morphological processes: umlaut, a backness-based alteration to the root vowel; and ablaut, a replacement of the root vowel, in verbs.
Old High German is an inflected language, and as such its nouns, pronouns, and adjectives must be declined in order to serve a grammatical function. A set of declined forms of the same word pattern is called a declension. There are five grammatical cases in Old High German.
The Proto-Italic language is the ancestor of the Italic languages, most notably Latin and its descendants, the Romance languages. It is not directly attested in writing, but has been reconstructed to some degree through the comparative method. Proto-Italic descended from the earlier Proto-Indo-European language.
In Russian grammar, the system of declension is elaborate and complex. Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, demonstratives, most numerals and other particles are declined for two grammatical numbers and six grammatical cases ; some of these parts of speech in the singular are also declined by three grammatical genders. This gives many spelling combinations for most of the words, which is needed for grammatical agreement within and (often) outside the proposition. Also, there are several paradigms for each declension with numerous irregular forms.
The morphology of the Polish language is characterised by a fairly regular system of inflection as well as word formation. Certain regular or common alternations apply across the Polish morphological system, affecting word formation and inflection of various parts of speech. These are described below, mostly with reference to the orthographic rather than the phonological system for clarity.
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