The conference of the six Great Powers (which for the first time included Italy) which met in London in May 1867, to settle the political order of northern Europe after the disruption of the German Confederation in 1866, is known as the London Conference of 1867. It resulted in the Treaty of London on 11 May 1867. The immediate occasion of the conference was the necessity of settling the status of the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, which, after the downfall of Napoleon, had been added to the dominions of the King of the Netherlands as a separate and independent state and made a member of the German Confederation. Notwithstanding the dissolution of the Confederation, Luxembourg continued to be occupied by Prussian troops, the French government insisting upon the removal of these troops and threatening war to enforce the demand, resulting in the Luxembourg Crisis.
The conference was called to avert the new danger to the peace of Europe, and it solved the problem by the statesmanlike device of placing the grand duchy under the collective guarantee of the Great Powers as a permanently neutralized territory. The conference is notable for its clear recognition of the principle of neutralization and of the rights of a neutralized state, as well as the obligations incurred by the Powers joining in the collective guarantee.
In an individual guarantee, such as that guaranteeing the neutrality of Belgium, powers that signed the treaty would be bound individually to defend a nation's neutrality regardless of the actions of the other signatories. In a collective guarantee, such as this treaty with Luxembourg, the major signatories would act in concert or would not be required to act at all. The distinction between individual and collective guarantee resulted in some confusion when the Germans invaded both Belgium and Luxembourg in August 1914. Since Germany inherited Prussia's 1867 commitment to a collective guarantee, by invading Luxembourg it rendered impossible any joint action in defense of Luxembourg's neutrality. Britain was therefore not required to intervene to defend Luxembourg. However, since Belgium was individually guaranteed by the major powers (including Britain), the British government felt obliged to defend its neutrality against German invasion.
Reference
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). "New International Encyclopedia". New International Encyclopedia (1sted.). New York: Dodd, Mead.
The history of Luxembourg consists of the history of the country of Luxembourg and its geographical area.
The United Kingdom of the Netherlands is the unofficial name given to the Kingdom of the Netherlands as it existed between 1815 and 1830. The United Netherlands was created in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars through the fusion of territories that had belonged to the former Dutch Republic, Austrian Netherlands, and Prince-Bishopric of Liège in order to form a buffer state between the major European powers. The polity was a constitutional monarchy, ruled by William I of the House of Orange-Nassau.
The Treaty of London or London Convention or similar may refer to:
The Locarno Treaties were seven post-World War I agreements negotiated amongst Germany, France, Great Britain, Belgium, Italy, Poland and Czechoslovakia in late 1925. In the main treaty, the five western European nations pledged to guarantee the inviolability of the borders between Germany and France and Germany and Belgium as defined in the Treaty of Versailles. They also promised to observe the demilitarized zone of the German Rhineland and to resolve differences peacefully under the auspices of the League of Nations. In the additional arbitration treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia, Germany agreed to the peaceful settlement of disputes, but there was notably no guarantee of its eastern border, leaving the path open for Germany to attempt to revise the Versailles Treaty and regain territory it had lost in the east under its terms.
The Treaty of London of 1839, was signed on 19 April 1839 between the major European powers, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and the Kingdom of Belgium. It was a direct follow-up to the 1831 Treaty of the XVIII Articles, which the Netherlands had refused to sign, and the result of negotiations at the London Conference of 1838–1839 which sought to maintain the Concert of Europe.
The Luxembourg Crisis was a diplomatic dispute and confrontation in 1867 between France and Prussia over the political status of Luxembourg.
The Treaty of London, often called the Second Treaty of London after the 1839 Treaty, granted Luxembourg full independence and neutrality. It was signed on 11 May 1867 in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War and the Luxembourg Crisis. It had wide-reaching consequences for Luxembourg and for relations among Europe's great powers.
From August 1914 until the end of World War I on 11 November 1918, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg was under full occupation by the German Empire. The German government justified the occupation by citing the need to support their armies in neighbouring France, although many Luxembourgers, past and present, have interpreted German actions otherwise.
There were three Partitions of Luxembourg between 1659 and 1839. Together, the three partitions reduced the territory of the Duchy of Luxembourg from 10,700 km2 (4,100 sq mi) to the present-day area of 2,586 km2 (998 sq mi) over a period of 240 years. The remainder forms parts of modern-day Belgium, France, and Germany.
The Duchy of Limburg was created in 1839 from parts of the Dutch Province of Limburg as a result of the Treaty of London. Its territory was the territory of the modern day province of Limburg with the exceptions of the cities of Maastricht and Venlo. The Duchy of Limburg was also a member state of the German Confederation.
Under the terms of the 1815 Peace of Paris, France was obliged to pay for the construction of a line of fortresses to protect the German Confederation against any future aggression by France. All fortresses were located outside Austria and Prussia — the two biggest, bickering powers of the Confederation.
The London Conference of 1830 brought together representatives of the five major European powers Austria, Britain, France, Prussia and Russia. At the conference, which began on 20 December, they recognized the success of the Belgian secession from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and permanently guaranteed Belgian independence.
Belgium was not a belligerent in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), as the country was neutral throughout the war, but was heavily influenced by the social and political effects of the conflict. An invasion of Belgian territory by either side was widely feared in 1870 and the Belgian Army was mobilised. The inadequacies which this revealed in Belgium's military and defensive preparations led to calls to reform the system of conscription and for a programme of fortification-building which would greatly influence the early phases of World War I.
The Tornaco Ministry was in office in Luxembourg from 26 September 1860 until 3 December 1867. It was reshuffled six times.
The Blochausen Ministry was the government of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg from 26 December 1874 to 20 February 1885. It was led by Baron Félix de Blochausen.
The Dupong-Krier Ministry took office in Luxembourg on 5 November 1937 after the resignation of the prime minister Joseph Bech, due to the result of a referendum on the so-called Maulkuerfgesetz.
The Servais Ministry was in office in Luxembourg from 3 December 1867 to 26 December 1874. It was reshuffled four times.
In the early 19th century, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg was ruled in personal union by the King of the Netherlands, William I. The territory that is now Belgium was similarly part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. When the Belgian Revolution occurred in 1830, most of Luxembourg rallied to this Revolution, and accepted Belgian rule. The exception was the fortress and capital, Luxembourg City, which housed a Dutch-German garrison and remained loyal to William I. This led to a de facto separation of the country from 1830-1839, when most of it was loyal to and administered by Belgium, while one part retained allegiance to the Netherlands. The situation was resolved in 1839 when the international great powers and William I agreed that Luxembourg would remain in his possession, and lose its French-speaking parts to the new country of Belgium.
The Luxembourg question refers to the political tensions surrounding the (Grand) Duchy of Luxembourg, particularly in the 19th century, but also earlier in the late Middle Ages and the early modern period, when the present-day territory of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg was ruled by different dynasties. The issue at stake in the Luxembourg question was the territorial affiliation and independence of Luxembourg, which was located between the Netherlands, France, Belgium and Germany.
The Neutralized Zone of Savoy was a zone of neutrality to the north of the Duchy of Savoy, part of the States of Savoy or the Kingdom of Sardinia. It was set up under the treaties that followed the two abdications of the French Emperor Napoleon I in 1815. Savoy became French in 1860, and the zone was abolished in 1919.
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