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Infant formula, baby formula or just formula or baby milk, infant milk, false milk, or first milk, is a manufactured food designed and marketed for feeding to babies and infants under 12 months of age, usually prepared for bottle-feeding or cup-feeding from powder or liquid. The U.S. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) defines infant formula as "a food which purports to be or is represented for special dietary use solely as a food for infants by reason of its simulation of human milk or its suitability as a complete or partial substitute for human milk".
Forced displacement is an involuntary or coerced movement of a person or people away from their home or home region. The UNHCR defines 'forced displacement' as follows: displaced "as a result of persecution, conflict, generalized violence or human rights violations".
Breast milk or mother's milk is milk produced by mammary glands, located in the breast of a human female. Breast milk is the primary source of nutrition for newborns, containing fat, protein, carbohydrates and variable minerals and vitamins. Breast milk also contains factors that are important for implications protecting the infant against infection and inflammation, whilst also contributing to healthy development of the immune system and gut microbiome.
A boycott was launched in the United States on July 4, 1977, against the Swiss-based Nestlé corporation. The boycott expanded into Europe in the early 1980s and was prompted by concern about Nestlé's "aggressive marketing" of infant formulas, particularly in underdeveloped countries. The boycott has been cancelled and renewed because of the business practices of Nestlé and other substitute manufacturers monitored by the International Baby Food Action Network (IBFAN). Organizers of the boycott as well as public health researchers state that infant formulas are worse for infants' health than real breast milk. As of 2013, the Nestlé boycott was coordinated by the International Nestlé Boycott Committee, whose secretariat was the British group Baby Milk Action.
The International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes is an international health policy framework for breastfeeding promotion adopted by the World Health Assembly (WHA) of the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1981. The Code was developed as a global public health strategy and recommends restrictions on the marketing of breast milk substitutes, such as infant formula, to ensure that mothers are not discouraged from breastfeeding and that substitutes are used safely if needed. The Code also covers ethical considerations and regulations for the marketing of feeding bottles and teats. A number of subsequent WHA resolutions have further clarified or extended certain provisions of the Code.
Derrick B. Jelliffe and his wife Eleanore. F. Patrice Jelliffe – known as Dick and Pat Jelliffe – were experts in tropical paediatrics and infant nutrition. They are most known for their seminal book, Human Milk in the Modern World, published by Oxford University Press in 1978, and for editing the multi-volume Advances in International Maternal and Child Health. The Jelliffes also wrote over 500 scholarly papers, often together, and 22 books. They lived and worked in England, Africa, India, the Caribbean and settled in Los Angeles, where he held the Chair in Public Health and Paediatrics at the University of California from 1972 to 1990.
The World Alliance for Breastfeeding Action (WABA) is a network of people working on a global scale to eliminate obstacles to breastfeeding and to act on the Innocenti Declaration. The groups within this alliance tackle the problems from a variety of perspectives or point of views, such as consumer advocates, mothers, and lactation consultants.
The history and culture of breastfeeding traces changing social, medical and legal attitudes to breastfeeding, the act of feeding a child breast milk directly from breast to mouth. Breastfeeding may be performed by the infant's mother or by a surrogate, typically called a wet nurse.
Breastfeeding difficulties refers to problems that arise from breastfeeding, the feeding of an infant or young child with milk from a woman's breasts. Although babies have a sucking reflex that enables them to suck and swallow milk, and human breast milk is usually the best source of nourishment for human infants, there are circumstances under which breastfeeding can be problematic, or even in rare instances, contraindicated.
The International Centre for Migration, Health and Development (ICMHD) is a Swiss-based non-profit organization based in Geneva, Switzerland. It is a research, training and policy centre founded in 1995 with the purpose of improving, protecting and advocating for the health and welfare of people on the move. ICMHD is a WHO Collaborating Centre for Health-Related Issues Among People Displaced by Disasters and a UNFPA Implementing Partner. It also works with other UN agencies as well as with universities and research and training institutions throughout the world.
Breastfeeding, or nursing, is the process by which human breast milk is fed to a child. Breast milk may be from the breast, or may be expressed by hand or pumped and fed to the infant. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that breastfeeding begin within the first hour of a baby's life and continue as often and as much as the baby wants. Health organizations, including the WHO, recommend breastfeeding exclusively for six months. This means that no other foods or drinks, other than vitamin D, are typically given. After the introduction of foods at six months of age, recommendations include continued breastfeeding until one to two years of age or more. Globally, about 38% of infants are exclusively breastfed during their first six months of life.
Dr. Neil Boothby is a psychologist and former US Government special advisor and senior coordinator to the USAID administrator on Children in Adversity, and former director of the Program on Forced Migration and Health at the Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health. Currently, he is the founding Director of the Global Center for the Development of the Whole Child at the University of Notre Dame. His research focuses on the psychosocial consequences of organized violence on children. As a senior representative of UNICEF, UNHCR, and Save the Children, he has worked for more than 25 years with children in crises in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Eastern Europe and is an internationally recognized expert and advocate for children affected by war and displacement. He has received numerous awards for his work on behalf of war-affected children, including the Red Cross International Humanitarian of the Year Award, the Mickey Leland Award, the United Nation's Golden Achievement Award for Social Services, and Duke University's Humanitarian Service Award.
Allan Rosenfield was an advocate for women's health during the worldwide AIDS pandemic as dean of the Columbia Mailman School of Public Health.
Wafaa El-Sadr is a Columbia University Professor and the director of ICAP at Columbia University, Columbia World Projects and the Center for Infectious Disease Epidemiologic Research (CIDER) at Columbia Mailman School of Public Health.
United Nations Security Council resolution 859, adopted unanimously on 24 August 1993, after recalling all resolutions on the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the council noted that, despite all previous security council resolutions since Resolution 713 (1991), the region was still a scene of hostilities and there was little compliance with previous resolutions, particularly by the Bosnian Serb party.
Infant nutrition is the description of the dietary needs of infants. A diet lacking essential calories, minerals, vitamins, or fluids is considered inadequate. Breast milk provides the best nutrition for these vital first months of growth when compared to infant formula. For example, breastfeeding aids in preventing anemia, obesity, and sudden infant death syndrome; and it promotes digestive health, immunity, intelligence, and dental development. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends exclusively feeding an infant breast milk, or iron-fortified formula, for the first six months of life and continuing for one year or longer as desired by infant and mother. Infants are usually not introduced to solid foods until four to six months of age. Historically, breastfeeding infants was the only option for nutrition otherwise the infant would perish. Breastfeeding is rarely contraindicated, but is not recommended for mothers being treated for cancer, those with active tuberculosis, HIV, substance abuse, or leukemia. Clinicians can be consulted to determine what the best source of infant nutrition is for each baby.
Health in Bosnia and Herzegovina was impacted by the Balkan War of the early 1990s, during which Bosnia and Herzegovina declared their independence. Bosnia faced many challenges during the war, including bombings throughout the country that ruined much of the infrastructure. Parallel regimes took over Bosnia and flipped the country upside down with land mines, bullets, and bombings. The war displaced over 800,000 refugees and killed over 100,000 people. The war in Bosnia also consisted of an ethnic "cleanse" of Bosnian Muslims initiated by Bosnian Serbs, which included containment of Bosniaks in concentration camps. The war ended with NATO involvement and the Dayton Agreement in 1995. The Dayton Agreement acknowledges Bosnia and Herzegovina as a democratic country and the country is moving toward the basic principals that accompany that, such as civil rights and equality. During the war there was minimal attention given to the standard of health and major public health concerns, such as pest control, hygiene, disinfection, and import and export programs, were all interrupted or stopped. The war affected Bosnia in many ways. The war torn country not only lost much of the infrastructure, but the economy and the governmental system were also affected. It is estimated that there are still thousands of people living as refugees and a large portion of the population still fall under the United Nations High Commission of Refugees category of a refugee or displaced person. The shortcomings of the current health care system include the lack of communication between health care centers, lack of skills, and lack of standards that are uniform throughout the country.
Quarraisha Abdool Karim, is an infectious diseases epidemiologist and co-founder and Associate Scientific Director of CAPRISA. She is Professor in Clinical Epidemiology, Columbia University, New York and Pro-Vice Chancellor for African Health, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
Karithi Ruth Wanjiru Nduati is a Kenyan Pediatrician and Epidemiologist who also teaches at the University of Nairobi College of Health Sciences. She is also currently leading an interdisciplinary program through the University of Nairobi School of Medicine to educate physician-researchers to best implement HIV treatment and prevention methods backed by research. The program was funded by the Fogarty Training Grant which is a part of the PEPFAR funds the country of Kenya received.
Gabrielle Palmer BA, MSc has been involved in international efforts to stop the unethical promotion of breastmilk substitutes globally and to support appropriate infant feeding for over 40 years. She is the author of the seminal text, The Politics of Breastfeeding, now in its revised third edition and which has never been out of print.
