Papyrus is a material similar to thick paper that was used in ancient times as a writing surface. It was made from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus, a wetland sedge. Papyrus can also refer to a document written on sheets of such material, joined side by side and rolled up into a scroll, an early form of a book.
The Vergilius Vaticanus, also known as Vatican Virgil, is a Late Antique illuminated manuscript containing fragments of Virgil's Aeneid and Georgics. It was made in Rome in around 400 CE, and is one of the oldest surviving sources for the text of the Aeneid. It is the oldest and one of only three ancient illustrated manuscripts of classical literature.
The Vergilius Romanus, also known as the Roman Vergil, is a 5th-century illustrated manuscript of the works of Virgil. It contains the Aeneid, the Georgics, and some of the Eclogues. It is one of the oldest and most important Vergilian manuscripts. It is 332 by 323 mm with 309 vellum folios. It was written in rustic capitals with 18 lines per page.
The Romance Papyrus is a fragment of 2nd century Greek manuscript of an unknown romance. It contains three unframed illustrations set within the columns of text. It is one of the few surviving scraps of classical literary illustration on papyrus. The fragment is 340 by 115 mm. It was acquired by the Bibliothèque Nationale in 1900.
The Heracles Papyrus is a fragment of a 3rd-century Greek manuscript of a poem about the Labours of Heracles. It contains three unframed colored line drawings of the first of the Labors, the killing of the Nemean lion, set within the columns of cursive text. It was found at Oxyrhynchus and is one of the few surviving scraps of classical literary illustration on papyrus. The fragment measures 235 by 106 mm.
The Charioteer Papyrus is a 5th-century fragment of an illustration from an unknown work of literature. It is one of the finest surviving fragments of ancient book illustration. Unlike other surviving illustrated fragments of papyrus, such as the Romance Papyrus and the Heracles Papyrus, which have illustrations that are little more than mere sketches, the Charioteer Papyrus is sensitively drawn and finely colored. It shows portions of six charioteers in the red or green tunics of their factions. It is unlikely that it served as an illustration for the chariot race at the games at the funeral of Patroclus in the Iliad, since the number of charioteers is wrong.
The Dramatic Ramesseum Papyrus is the oldest known surviving illustrated papyrus roll. It contains a ceremonial play celebrating the coronation or the Sed festival performed for Senusret I of the Twelfth Dynasty. It is dated to around 1980 BC. It was discovered in the Ramesseum, from which it gets its name. The text of the roll is in linear hieroglyphs written in narrow, vertical columns. The text occupies the top four-fifths of the scroll and the illustrations the bottom. The scenes are arranged in a manner similar to a modern comic strip with the Pharaoh, in the role of Horus, appearing multiple times. Scenes are divided from each other by vertical lines. The papyrus is now preserved at the British Museum.
In mathematics, ancient Egyptian multiplication, one of two multiplication methods used by scribes, is a systematic method for multiplying two numbers that does not require the multiplication table, only the ability to multiply and divide by 2, and to add. It decomposes one of the multiplicands into a set of numbers of powers of two and then creates a table of doublings of the second multiplicand by every value of the set which is summed up to give result of multiplication.
Early study of triangles can be traced to the 2nd millennium BC, in Egyptian mathematics and Babylonian mathematics. Trigonometry was also prevalent in Kushite mathematics. Systematic study of trigonometric functions began in Hellenistic mathematics, reaching India as part of Hellenistic astronomy. In Indian astronomy, the study of trigonometric functions flourished in the Gupta period, especially due to Aryabhata, who discovered the sine function. During the Middle Ages, the study of trigonometry continued in Islamic mathematics, by mathematicians such as Al-Khwarizmi and Abu al-Wafa. It became an independent discipline in the Islamic world, where all six trigonometric functions were known. Translations of Arabic and Greek texts led to trigonometry being adopted as a subject in the Latin West beginning in the Renaissance with Regiomontanus. The development of modern trigonometry shifted during the western Age of Enlightenment, beginning with 17th-century mathematics and reaching its modern form with Leonhard Euler (1748).
Papyrus 13, designated by siglum 𝔓13 or P13 in the Gregory-Aland numbering, is a fragmented manuscript of the New Testament in Greek. It was copied on papyrus in the 3rd century at approximately 225-250 CE.
Papyrus 8, signed by 𝔓8 or α 8, is an early copy of the New Testament in Greek. It is a papyrus manuscript of the Acts of the Apostles, it contains Acts 4:31–37; 5:2–9; 6:1–6.8–15. The manuscript paleographically has been assigned to the 4th century.
Papyrus Rylands 463 is a copy of the apocryphal Gospel of Mary in Greek. It is a papyrus manuscript in roll form. The manuscript has been assigned palaeographically to the 3rd century. It is one of the three manuscripts and one of the two Greek manuscripts of the Gospel of Mary. It is longer than Papyrus Oxyrhynchus L 3525.
In mathematics, the Pythagorean theorem or Pythagoras' theorem is a fundamental relation in Euclidean geometry between the three sides of a right triangle. It states that the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares on the other two sides.
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 12 is a fragment of a chronological work in Greek. It was discovered by Grenfell and Hunt in 1897 in Oxyrhynchus. The fragment is dated to the first or second century. It is housed in the Cambridge University Library. The text was published by Grenfell and Hunt in 1898.
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 16 is a fragment of the fourth book of the History of the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides in Greek. It was discovered by Grenfell and Hunt in 1897 in Oxyrhynchus. The fragment is dated to the first century. It is housed in the University of Pennsylvania Museum. The text was published by Grenfell and Hunt in 1898.
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 17 is a fragment of the second book of Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War, written in Greek. It was discovered by Grenfell and Hunt in 1897 in Oxyrhynchus. The fragment is dated to the second or third century and is housed in the Milton S. Eisenhower Library at Johns Hopkins University. The text was published by Grenfell and Hunt in 1898.
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 19 is a fragment of the first book of the Histories of Herodotus, written in Greek. It was discovered by Grenfell and Hunt in 1897 in Oxyrhynchus. The fragment is dated to the second or third century. It is housed in Princeton University Library. The text was published by Grenfell and Hunt in 1898.
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 21 is a fragment of the second book of the Iliad, written in Greek. It was discovered by Grenfell and Hunt in 1897 in Oxyrhynchus. The fragment is dated to the first or second century. It is housed in the University of Chicago Oriental Institute. The text was published by Grenfell and Hunt in 1898.
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 24 is a fragment of Chapter X of Plato's Republic, written in Greek. It was discovered by Grenfell and Hunt in 1897 in Oxyrhynchus. The fragment is dated to the third century. It is housed in the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University. The text was published by Grenfell and Hunt in 1898.
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 842 is a papyrus manuscript, written in Ancient Greek, discovered during the 1906 excavations in Oxyrhynchus in modern Egypt by Bernard Pyne Grenfell and Arthur Surridge Hunt. It contains a history of classic Greece for the years 396-395 BCE. Along with PSI XII 1304, it makes up the Hellenica Oxyrhynchia.
