Movement in learning

Last updated May 05, 2024

Movement in learning also known as movement-based instruction, is a teaching method based on the concept that movement enhances cognitive processes and facilitates learning. This approach emphasizes integrating movement into educational settings to optimize students' engagement and academic performance. Research suggests that incorporating movement breaks as little as 10 minutes of walking, and physical activities during lessons can enhance students' ability to process and retain new information.^[1]While some studies have highlighted the positive effects of movement-based instruction, there is ongoing research exploring its effectiveness across diverse educational settings and populations.

Benefits

Physical movement stimulates long-term memory and recall because it has been associated in the human brain with survival. This has been supported by brain imaging studies.^[2] This idea is confirmed by findings in studies that show that exercise can shape muscles and potentially strengthen some areas of the brain, growing brain cells and increasing alertness in the process. It is said that the harder the task is for students, the greater the cerebellar activity.^[3] Specifically, short movement breaks for the brain is said to lead to more opportunities for information processing and increased memory formation.^[4] It contributes to the overall cognitive development of the students because it sends oxygen, water, and glucose to the brain, helping it grow and improve mood and motivation.^[5] In addition, the area of the brain that processes movement is also the part that processes cognitive tasks.^[6] The link between movement and the cognitive development has been proven as early as the 1960s during Richard Held and Alan Hein's experiments that revealed the role of physical activity on the development of brain networks that are important for adaptive mental function.^[7]

Students through brain breaks to engage in physical activities can facilitate physical development. In combination with the socialization, which also contributes to the learners' socio-emotional development - movements offer a quick and convenient way to support the rapid development, especially among young learners.^[5] This can be demonstrated in the efficacy of using physical tasks to address the needs of hyperactive students because they are able to release stress and energy, allowing them to focus on their studies without causing disruption in the class.^[8] Movements also eliminate lethargy that results from sitting for long periods of time. There are recorded cases, for instance, that show marked improvement in school performance for learners who were made to do physical tasks such as walking in mid-afternoon.^[9]

Applications in the classroom

Younger students can greatly benefit from engaging in various movement-based activities that reinforce their learning. Brain-based learning advocates for the incorporation of movement in educational settings. According to research from the University of Wisconsin at Stevens Point, one fundamental aspect of brain-based learning is that learning involves the entire body. This means that movement, diet, attention spans, and neurochemicals all play a role in the learning process. Another crucial principle is that complex learning is enhanced by challenges but hindered by stress. The concept of enrichment suggests that the brain has the capacity to form new connections throughout life, and that challenging and stimulating experiences, coupled with appropriate feedback, are optimal for cognitive development. Furthermore, it's noted that cognitive skills are strengthened by engaging in activities involving music and motor skills. ^[10]

Supporting these ideas, both the U.S. National Institute of Health and the Mayo Clinic advocate for exercise and movement as effective means to reduce stress levels. Given that elementary-aged children can effectively absorb only 15 to 20 minutes of material at a time, incorporating regular brain breaks into lessons becomes essential. Implementing brain breaks into the classroom routine offers multiple benefits for both students and teachers alike. These breaks not only provide opportunities for learning but also allow students to return to tasks feeling refreshed and energized. For enhanced science and math lessons, educators may consider incorporating Drums Alive Academic Beats for innovative ideas.

A ground breaking method in movement-based instruction is the use of science choreography. Science choreography is a technique that uses movement to teach science. A team of scientists, educators, dancers, and choreographers worked together to develop movement-based activities inspired by dance to teach science concepts.^[11]

Chart: Sample movements and classroom applications

Movement(s) Category	Examples	Classroom Application
Exercise or play	Running, chasing, recess activities	Creating dance routines, run on the spot, perform knowledge of a process
Contact or sports	Soccer, football, wrestling	PE classes
Introverted play	Puzzles, Lego, crosswords	Building using objects to show creativity or to assess knowledge of a concept learnt. Group puzzles (educator made to make connections or just general for team-building) Vocabulary crosswords
Outdoor learning	Playing in the garden, digging, physical, social, and cognition development	Relate to science lessons, hands-on experiments, observing and making real life connections
Stand & stretch	Tai chi, yoga, passive or active stretching	Simon says, goal setting on the move, gallery walks, full body stretches and stand up to get a paper or supplies before assignment
Group/team competitive games/activities	Relays	Relay teams for math questions on the board
Constructive play	Building with blocks	Model building of how something works
Exploratory	Hide and seeks, scavenger hunts, make-believe	Hide and seek with answers. Hide clues throughout the classroom that lead to answers
Functional	Purposeful play	Ball tossing for reviewing or building vocabulary, story-building and movements that incorporate opposite or cross-lateral movements (tap your head and rub your stomach)
Group non-competitive	Team building, social, collaborative thinking, dance, drama	Collaborative drawing and stories, role playing and group presentations
Individual competitive	Marbles, track and field, hopscotch	Spelling words on the board, math fact around-the-world game
Adventure or confidence	Walking excursions, ropes course	Field trips, walks inside the school, walks outside the school exploring environments

Integration of Movement in Learning Environments

A study by Vujičić, Peić, and Petrić compares movement-based integrated learning in early childhood education across two groups attending city kindergartens. A group emphasizing movement and a control group with standard integrated learning practices. In the experimental group, the gym is organized to enable children’s exploration, with the teacher taking on an indirect facilitator role, whereas the control group follows traditional teaching methods. Results of the research showed that children in the movement-based group exhibited high levels of engagement, promoting motor skill development and enjoyment in learning, while the control group demonstrated less active participation. A content analysis method analysed the data that was collected through photography and videography. This research highlights the influence of movement-based integrated learning on the quality of the educational process in early-aged children attending city kindergartens, emphasizing the importance of considering physical environments in early education for enhancing learning experiences.^[12]

Additional benefits for special-needs learners

Many special-needs learners are stuck in counterproductive mental states, and movement can be a quick way to counteract these. Movements, such as those involved in playing active games, will activate the brain across a wide variety of areas. A study by Reynolds and colleagues (2003) found that children with dyslexia were assisted by a movement program.^[13] Those in the intervention group showed significantly greater improvement in dexterity, reading, verbal fluency, and semantic fluency than those in the control group. The exercising group also made substantial gains on national standardized tests of reading, writing, and comprehension in comparison with students in the previous year.

Related Research Articles

Dyslexia, previously known as word blindness, is a learning disability that affects either reading or writing. Different people are affected to different degrees. Problems may include difficulties in spelling words, reading quickly, writing words, "sounding out" words in the head, pronouncing words when reading aloud and understanding what one reads. Often these difficulties are first noticed at school. The difficulties are involuntary, and people with this disorder have a normal desire to learn. People with dyslexia have higher rates of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), developmental language disorders, and difficulties with numbers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Learning theory (education)</span> Theory that describes how students receive, process, and retain knowledge during learning

Learning theory describes how students receive, process, and retain knowledge during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a worldview, is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained.

Physical education, often abbreviated to Phys. Ed. or PE, and sometimes informally referred to as gym class or simply just gym, is a subject taught in schools around the world. PE is taught during primary and secondary education and encourages psychomotor, cognitive, and effective learning through physical activity and movement exploration to promote health and physical fitness. When taught correctly and in a positive manner, children and teens can receive a storm of health benefits. These include reduced metabolic disease risk, improved cardiorespiratory fitness, and better mental health. In addition, PE classes can produce positive effects on students' behavior and academic performance. Research has shown that there is a positive correlation between brain development and exercising. Researchers in 2007 found a profound gain in English Arts standardized test scores among students who had 56 hours of physical education in a year, compared to those who had 28 hours of physical education a year.

A motor skill is a function that involves specific movements of the body's muscles to perform a certain task. These tasks could include walking, running, or riding a bike. In order to perform this skill, the body's nervous system, muscles, and brain have to all work together. The goal of motor skill is to optimize the ability to perform the skill at the rate of success, precision, and to reduce the energy consumption required for performance. Performance is an act of executing a motor skill or task. Continuous practice of a specific motor skill will result in a greatly improved performance, which leads to motor learning. Motor learning is a relatively permanent change in the ability to perform a skill as a result of continuous practice or experience.

Instructional scaffolding is the support given to a student by an instructor throughout the learning process. This support is specifically tailored to each student; this instructional approach allows students to experience student-centered learning, which tends to facilitate more efficient learning than teacher-centered learning. This learning process promotes a deeper level of learning than many other common teaching strategies.

In psychology, cognitivism is a theoretical framework for understanding the mind that gained credence in the 1950s. The movement was a response to behaviorism, which cognitivists said neglected to explain cognition. Cognitive psychology derived its name from the Latin cognoscere, referring to knowing and information, thus cognitive psychology is an information-processing psychology derived in part from earlier traditions of the investigation of thought and problem solving.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Active learning</span> Educational technique

Active learning is "a method of learning in which students are actively or experientially involved in the learning process and where there are different levels of active learning, depending on student involvement." Bonwell & Eison (1991) states that "students participate [in active learning] when they are doing something besides passively listening." According to Hanson and Moser (2003) using active teaching techniques in the classroom can create better academic outcomes for students. Scheyvens, Griffin, Jocoy, Liu, & Bradford (2008) further noted that "by utilizing learning strategies that can include small-group work, role-play and simulations, data collection and analysis, active learning is purported to increase student interest and motivation and to build students ‘critical thinking, problem-solving and social skills". In a report from the Association for the Study of Higher Education, authors discuss a variety of methodologies for promoting active learning. They cite literature that indicates students must do more than just listen in order to learn. They must read, write, discuss, and be engaged in solving problems. This process relates to the three learning domains referred to as knowledge, skills and attitudes (KSA). This taxonomy of learning behaviors can be thought of as "the goals of the learning process." In particular, students must engage in such higher-order thinking tasks as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

Muscle memory is a form of procedural memory that involves consolidating a specific motor task into memory through repetition, which has been used synonymously with motor learning. When a movement is repeated over time, the brain creates a long-term muscle memory for that task, eventually allowing it to be performed with little to no conscious effort. This process decreases the need for attention and creates maximum efficiency within the motor and memory systems. Muscle memory is found in many everyday activities that become automatic and improve with practice, such as riding bikes, driving motor vehicles, playing ball sports, typing on keyboards, entering PINs, playing musical instruments, poker, martial arts, swimming, dancing, and drawing.

Dyscalculia is a disability resulting in difficulty learning or comprehending arithmetic, such as difficulty in understanding numbers, learning how to manipulate numbers, performing mathematical calculations, and learning facts in mathematics. It is sometimes colloquially referred to as "math dyslexia", though this analogy is misleading as they are distinct syndromes.

Learning styles refer to a range of theories that aim to account for differences in individuals' learning. Although there is ample evidence that individuals express personal preferences on how they prefer to receive information, few studies have found validity in using learning styles in education. Many theories share the proposition that humans can be classified according to their "style" of learning, but differ on how the proposed styles should be defined, categorized and assessed. A common concept is that individuals differ in how they learn.

Constructivism is a theory in education which posits that individuals or learners do not acquire knowledge and understanding by passively perceiving it within a direct process of knowledge transmission, rather they construct new understandings and knowledge through experience and social discourse, integrating new information with what they already know. For children, this includes knowledge gained prior to entering school. It is associated with various philosophical positions, particularly in epistemology as well as ontology, politics, and ethics. The origin of the theory is also linked to Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

Kinesthetic learning, kinaesthetic learning, or tactile learning is learning that involves physical activity. As cited by Favre (2009), Dunn and Dunn define kinesthetic learners as students who prefer whole-body movement to process new and difficult information. However, scientific studies do not support the claim that using kinesthetic modality improves learning in students identified as kinesthetic learning as their preferred learning style.

Recess is a general term for a period in which a group of people are temporarily dismissed from their duties.

Visual learning is a learning style among the learning styles of Neil Fleming's VARK model in which information is presented to a learner in a visual format. Visual learners can utilize graphs, charts, maps, diagrams, and other forms of visual stimulation to effectively interpret information. The Fleming VARK model also includes Kinesthetic Learning and Auditory learning. There is no evidence that providing visual materials to students identified as having a visual style improves learning.

Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) is a pedagogical approach wherein learning takes place via social interaction using a computer or through the Internet. This kind of learning is characterized by the sharing and construction of knowledge among participants using technology as their primary means of communication or as a common resource. CSCL can be implemented in online and classroom learning environments and can take place synchronously or asynchronously.

Neurodevelopmental framework for learning, like all frameworks, is an organizing structure through which learners and learning can be understood. Intelligence theories and neuropsychology inform many of them. The framework described below is a neurodevelopmental framework for learning. The neurodevelopmental framework was developed by the All Kinds of Minds Institute in collaboration with Dr. Mel Levine and the University of North Carolina's Clinical Center for the Study of Development and Learning. It is similar to other neuropsychological frameworks, including Alexander Luria's cultural-historical psychology and psychological activity theory, but also draws from disciplines such as speech-language pathology, occupational therapy, and physical therapy. It also shares components with other frameworks, some of which are listed below. However, it does not include a general intelligence factor, since the framework is used to describe learners in terms of profiles of strengths and weaknesses, as opposed to using labels, diagnoses, or broad ability levels. This framework was also developed to link with academic skills, such as reading and writing. Implications for education are discussed below as well as the connections to and compatibilities with several major educational policy issues.

Dyslexia is a reading disorder wherein an individual experiences trouble with reading. Individuals with dyslexia have normal levels of intelligence but can exhibit difficulties with spelling, reading fluency, pronunciation, "sounding out" words, writing out words, and reading comprehension. The neurological nature and underlying causes of dyslexia are an active area of research. However, some experts believe that the distinction of dyslexia as a separate reading disorder and therefore recognized disability is a topic of some controversy.

Educational neuroscience is an emerging scientific field that brings together researchers in cognitive neuroscience, developmental cognitive neuroscience, educational psychology, educational technology, education theory and other related disciplines to explore the interactions between biological processes and education. Researchers in educational neuroscience investigate the neural mechanisms of reading, numerical cognition, attention and their attendant difficulties including dyslexia, dyscalculia and ADHD as they relate to education. Researchers in this area may link basic findings in cognitive neuroscience with educational technology to help in curriculum implementation for mathematics education and reading education. The aim of educational neuroscience is to generate basic and applied research that will provide a new transdisciplinary account of learning and teaching, which is capable of informing education. A major goal of educational neuroscience is to bridge the gap between the two fields through a direct dialogue between researchers and educators, avoiding the "middlemen of the brain-based learning industry". These middlemen have a vested commercial interest in the selling of "neuromyths" and their supposed remedies.

Cognitive flexibility is an intrinsic property of a cognitive system often associated with the mental ability to adjust its activity and content, switch between different task rules and corresponding behavioral responses, maintain multiple concepts simultaneously and shift internal attention between them. The term cognitive flexibility is traditionally used to refer to one of the executive functions. In this sense, it can be seen as neural underpinnings of adaptive and flexible behavior. Most flexibility tests were developed under this assumption several decades ago. Nowadays, cognitive flexibility can also be referred to as a set of properties of the brain that facilitate flexible yet relevant switching between functional brain states.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Memory improvement</span> Act of improving ones memory

Memory improvement is the act of enhancing one's memory. Research on improving memory is driven by amnesia, age-related memory loss, and people’s desire to enhance their memory. Research involved in memory improvement has also worked to determine what factors influence memory and cognition. There are many different techniques to improve memory some of which include cognitive training, psychopharmacology, diet, stress management, and exercise. Each technique can improve memory in different ways.

References

↑ Mualem, Raed; Leisman, Gerry; Zbedat, Yusra; Ganem, Sherif; Mualem, Ola; Amaria, Monjed; Kozle, Aiman; Khayat-Moughrabi, Safa; Ornai, Alon (20 April 2018). "The Effect of Movement on Cognitive Performance". Frontiers in Public Health. 6: 100. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2018.00100 . PMC 5919946 . PMID 29732367.
↑ Sousa, David (2015). How the Brain Influences Behavior: Strategies for Managing K 12 Classrooms. Delaware: Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 9781632206848.^{[ page needed ]}
↑ Ivry, Richard (1997). Cerebellar Timing Systems. International Review of Neurobiology. Vol. 41. pp. 555–573. doi:10.1016/S0074-7742(08)60370-0. ISBN 978-0-12-366841-7.
↑ Mangan, Margaret (2015). Brain-Compatible Science. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 9781632209658.^{[ page needed ]}
1 2 Responsive Classroom (2016). Refocus and Recharge! 50 Brain Breaks for Middle Schoolers. Turner Falls, MA: Center for Responsive Schools, Inc. p. 2. ISBN 9781892989871.
↑ Kearns, Karen (2017). Birth to Big School. Sydney: Cengage Learning. p. 71. ISBN 9780170369343.
↑ Tomporowski, Phillip; McCullick, Bryan; Pesce, Catherine (2015). Enhancing Children's Cognition With Physical Activity Games. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. p. 10. ISBN 9781450441421.
↑ Bluestein, Jane (2008). The Win-Win Classroom: A Fresh and Positive Look at Classroom Management. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. p. 175. ISBN 9781412958998.
↑ Gurian, Michael (2005). The Minds of Boys: Saving Our Sons From Falling Behind in School and Life . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. p. 173. ISBN 9780787977610.
↑ Gath, Ann. "Quality of life for people with learning disability throughout the life span". Psychiatric Bulletin. 17 (7): 405–408. doi:10.1192/pb.17.7.405. ISSN 0955-6036.
↑ Grabel, Laura; Weir, Michael; Appel, Laurel F.; Johnson, Elizabeth; McCarthy, Richard; Lerman, Liz (December 2013). "Science Choreography: A Movement-Based Approach to Biology Teaching". CBE—Life Sciences Education. 12 (4): 582–583. doi:10.1187/cbe.13-07-0131. PMC 3846507 . PMID 24297284.
↑ Vujičić, Lidija; Peić, Mirela; Petrić, Vilko (2020). "Representation of Movement-Based Integrated Learning in Different Physical Environments of an Early Education Institution". Revija za elementarno izobraževanje. 13 (4): 453–474. doi: 10.18690/rei.13.4.453-474.2020 .
↑ Reynolds, David; Nicolson, Roderick I.; Hambly, Helen. "Evaluation of an exercise‐based treatment for children with reading difficulties". Dyslexia. 9 (1): 48–71. doi:10.1002/dys.235. ISSN 1076-9242.

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[1] Mualem, Raed; Leisman, Gerry; Zbedat, Yusra; Ganem, Sherif; Mualem, Ola; Amaria, Monjed; Kozle, Aiman; Khayat-Moughrabi, Safa; Ornai, Alon (20 April 2018). "The Effect of Movement on Cognitive Performance". Frontiers in Public Health. 6: 100. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2018.00100 . PMC 5919946 . PMID 29732367.

[2] Sousa, David (2015). How the Brain Influences Behavior: Strategies for Managing K 12 Classrooms. Delaware: Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 9781632206848.^{[ page needed ]}

[3] Ivry, Richard (1997). Cerebellar Timing Systems. International Review of Neurobiology. Vol. 41. pp. 555–573. doi:10.1016/S0074-7742(08)60370-0. ISBN 978-0-12-366841-7.

[4] Mangan, Margaret (2015). Brain-Compatible Science. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 9781632209658.^{[ page needed ]}

[:0-5] 1 2 Responsive Classroom (2016). Refocus and Recharge! 50 Brain Breaks for Middle Schoolers. Turner Falls, MA: Center for Responsive Schools, Inc. p. 2. ISBN 9781892989871.

[6] Kearns, Karen (2017). Birth to Big School. Sydney: Cengage Learning. p. 71. ISBN 9780170369343.

[7] Tomporowski, Phillip; McCullick, Bryan; Pesce, Catherine (2015). Enhancing Children's Cognition With Physical Activity Games. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. p. 10. ISBN 9781450441421.

[8] Bluestein, Jane (2008). The Win-Win Classroom: A Fresh and Positive Look at Classroom Management. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. p. 175. ISBN 9781412958998.

[9] Gurian, Michael (2005). The Minds of Boys: Saving Our Sons From Falling Behind in School and Life . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. p. 173. ISBN 9780787977610.

[10] Gath, Ann. "Quality of life for people with learning disability throughout the life span". Psychiatric Bulletin. 17 (7): 405–408. doi:10.1192/pb.17.7.405. ISSN 0955-6036.

[11] Grabel, Laura; Weir, Michael; Appel, Laurel F.; Johnson, Elizabeth; McCarthy, Richard; Lerman, Liz (December 2013). "Science Choreography: A Movement-Based Approach to Biology Teaching". CBE—Life Sciences Education. 12 (4): 582–583. doi:10.1187/cbe.13-07-0131. PMC 3846507 . PMID 24297284.

[12] Vujičić, Lidija; Peić, Mirela; Petrić, Vilko (2020). "Representation of Movement-Based Integrated Learning in Different Physical Environments of an Early Education Institution". Revija za elementarno izobraževanje. 13 (4): 453–474. doi: 10.18690/rei.13.4.453-474.2020 .

[13] Reynolds, David; Nicolson, Roderick I.; Hambly, Helen. "Evaluation of an exercise‐based treatment for children with reading difficulties". Dyslexia. 9 (1): 48–71. doi:10.1002/dys.235. ISSN 1076-9242.

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