Persian revolts against Ali

Persian Rebellion (656-661)
Date 656-661 Location Iran Result Victory for Ali Territorial changes Suppression of all rebellious regions
Belligerents
Caliphate of Ali	Persian rebels
Commanders and leaders
Ali ibn Abi Talib Abdullah ibn Abbas Ziyad ibn Abih Jadd ibn Howrah Abu Musa Harith ibn Sarah al Abdi   † Abdul Rahman ibn Jazz	Collective leadership
Casualties and losses
Unknown	High Casualities

The Persian Rebellions occurred during the First Fitna, following the internal crisis of the Caliphate of Ali.

Background

The Persian rebellions against the early Arab caliphates were driven by a combination of cultural, religious, and economic grievances. Following the fall of the Sasanian Empire after the Arab conquests, Persian society experienced a severe disruption. Many Persians viewed the Arab rulers as foreign occupiers who dismantled traditional institutions and imposed unfamiliar governance structures. Cultural tensions were heightened as Arabic became the administrative language, and Persian elites lost their status under the new regime. ^[1]

Religiously, the Zoroastrian majority found themselves increasingly marginalized. While initially considered "People of the Book", Zoroastrians faced heavier taxation and restrictions over time, leading to widespread resentment. The destruction of temples and suppression of religious customs further alienated the population. ^[2]

Economically, many Persians suffered under the burdens of jizya (tax on non-Muslims) and kharaj (land tax), especially under corrupt or harsh governors. This exploitation led to several revolts across the region, as documented in movements like the Tabaristan uprising and other localized resistance efforts. ^[3]

Islamic sources also acknowledge the resistance faced during the conquests. For instance, the province of Isfahan rebelled after initial submission, requiring renewed military campaigns to reassert control. ^[4] Additionally, the local nobility and common people in regions like Khorasan and Fars rose in revolt during Caliph Uthman's reign, necessitating multiple expeditions to quell the uprisings. ^[5]

Revolts against Ali

During the caliphate of Ali ibn Abi Talib, some Persians participated in uprisings due to lingering resentment from the Arab conquests and internal divisions within the early Muslim community. Many Persian converts felt alienated by the tribal favoritism of the Arab elite and the limited integration of non-Arabs (mawali) into the political structure. ^[6] Additionally, the chaos of the First Fitna (Islamic civil war) and Ali’s struggles with Mu'awiya provided opportunities for local resistance, especially in regions like Khorasan where loyalty to the Sasanian legacy remained strong. ^[7]

Istakhr Revolts

After the Arab conquest of Persia, the city of Istakhr remained a significant center of resistance against the newly established Islamic rule. The city, deeply tied to the Sasanian legacy, became a focal point for those who resisted the loss of Persian autonomy and sought to restore the old imperial order. During the caliphate of Ali ibn Abi Talib, this resistance intensified into a full-fledged revolt. Many in the region, particularly the local nobility and Zoroastrian clergy, opposed the centralization of power under the Arabs, which they saw as a threat to their religious and cultural heritage.^{[ citation needed ]}

In response, Caliph Ali appointed Ziyad ibn Abih to suppress the unrest. Ziyad led a military campaign to quash the uprising and restore control over the region. His efforts were marked by a decisive victory that effectively reasserted the caliphal authority over Istakhr and other parts of Fars. Despite the defeat, the uprising underscored the ongoing tensions between the Arab conquerors and the Persian population, particularly in areas where local resistance remained strong due to their attachment to Sasanian traditions. ^{[8] [9]} .

Revolt of Fars and Kerman

When the people of Fars and Kerman rose in revolt and refused to pay kharaj after the death of al Hadrami , Ali sent Ziyad with 4000 troops and subjugated their revolt. ^{[10] [11]}

Revolt of Khorasan

Khorasan revolted against Ali,resulting him to send Hubayrah to suppress the revolt , they besieged Nishapur and Marv until they made peace.Hubayrah took two maids of royal blood who requested to marry Hasan and Hussein which was refused by Ali. ^{[12] [13]}

Revolt of Khuzestan

Persian Muslims and Christians revolted against Ali but the revolt failed and their leader was killed. ^[14]

References

1. Frye, Richard Nelson (2000). The golden age of Persia : the Arabs in the East. Internet Archive. London : Phoenix Press. ISBN   978-1-84212-011-8.
2. Boyce, Mary (2001). Zoroastrians : their religious beliefs and practices. Internet Archive. London ; New York : Routledge. ISBN   978-0-415-23902-8.
3. Daniel, Elton L. The History of Iran. Greenwood Press, 2000.
4. Political Development - III, History of Islam. Retrieved from https://historyofislam.org/political-development-iii/
5. Fall of the Sassanid Empire: The Arab Conquest of Persia 633-654 CE, TheCollector. Retrieved from https://www.thecollector.com/fall-of-the-sassanid-empire-arab-conquest-persia/
6. Crone, Patricia. The Nativist Prophets of Early Islamic Iran: Rural Revolt and Local Zoroastrianism. Cambridge University Press, 2012.
7. Shaban, M.A. Islamic History: A New Interpretation. Cambridge University Press, 1971.
8. Daryaee, Touraj. Irānshahr and the Downfall of the Sasanian Empire. Routledge, 2023, p. 62.
9. Crone, Patricia. The Nativist Prophets of Early Islamic Iran. Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 6.
10. al-Tabari, Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir (1996). The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume 17: The First Civil War: From the Battle of Siffīn to the Death of ʿAlī A.D. 656–661/A.H. 36–40. Translated by G. R. Hawting. State University of New York Press. ISBN   9780791423943.
11. Frye, Richard Nelson (2000). The golden age of Persia : the Arabs in the East. Internet Archive. London : Phoenix Press. ISBN   978-1-84212-011-8.
12. al-Tabari, Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir (1996). The History of al-Tabari, Volume 17: The First Civil War. Translated by G. R. Hawting. State University of New York Press. ISBN   9780791423943.
13. Tārīkh-i Ṭabarī (Urdu) (in Urdu). Dar al-Isha‘at.
14. Frye, Richard Nelson (2000). The golden age of Persia : the Arabs in the East. Internet Archive. London : Phoenix Press. ISBN   978-1-84212-011-8.