Example of traditional prison tattoo, with medal motif showing
During the 20th century in the Soviet Union, Russian criminal and prison communities maintained a culture of using tattoos to indicate members' criminal career and ranking. Specifically among those imprisoned under the Gulag system of the Soviet era, the tattoos served to differentiate a criminal leader or thief in law from a political prisoner.[1]
The practice grew in the 1930s, peaking in the 1950s and declining in popularity in the 1970s and 1980s.[1][2]
Origins
The branding of criminals was practised in Russia long before tattooing was customary, and was banned in 1863. In the 19th century, a "pricked" cross on the left hand was often used to identify deserters from the army, and up until 1846, criminals sentenced to hard labour were branded "BOP" (thief), the letters on the forehead and cheeks. Brands were also applied to the shoulder blade and the right forearm, in three categories; "CK" for Ssylno-Katorzhny (hard labour convict), "SP" for Ssylno-Poselenets (hard labour deportee) and "Б" for Begly (escapee). In 1846, VOR was replaced by "KAT"; the first three letters of the word for "hard labour convict" or katorzhnik.[3][4]
In the 1930s, Russian criminal castes began to emerge, such as the Masti (suits) and the Vor v Zakone (rus. Вор в Законе) or Blatnye (authoritative thieves), and with that a tattoo culture to define rank and reputation. Up until World War II, any tattoo could denote a professional criminal, the only exception being tattoos on sailors.[1]
Under the Gulag system of the Soviet era, laws that were implemented in mid-1940 allowed short prison sentences to be given to those convicted of petty theft, hooliganism, or labor discipline infractions. This led to an increase in the prison population during and after World War II. By January 1941, the Gulag workforce had increased by approximately 300,000 prisoners.[5] Tattoos served to differentiate between an authority or "thief in law", and the many hundreds of thousands of political prisoners who were imprisoned during and shortly after World War Two for crimes not considered those of a "Vor" (thief).[1]
Some of the motifs came from English sailor tattoos, such as the flying tall ships, a heart pierced by a dagger, anchors, a serpent-entwined heart or a tiger baring its teeth.[6]
A thief's collection of tattoos represents his "suit" (mast), which indicates his status within the community of thieves and his control over other thieves within the thieves' law. In Russian criminal jargon or Fenya (феня), a full set of tattoos is known as frak s ordenami (a tailcoat with decorations). The tattoos show a "service record" of achievements and failures, prison sentences and the type of work a criminal does. They might also represent his "thief's family", naming others within hearts or with the traditional tomcat image.[7][8] Misappropriation of the tattoos of a "legitimate thief" could be punished by death, or the prisoner would be forced to remove them themselves "with a knife, sandpaper, a shard of glass or a lump of brick".[9]
Bitch war
After World War II a schism occurred in the criminal world leading to the Bitch Wars. Many convicts had fought in penal units, in contravention of the thieves' code that no thief should serve in the military or cooperate with authorities in any way. Many legitimate thieves found themselves demoted to frayer (outsider), muzhik (мужик, peasant), or suka (сука, traitor, bitch). This was part of a power struggle; with limited resources in prison, outlawing the "bitches" (suki) allowed the legitimate thieves to take more for themselves.[10]
Tattoos were modified and new designs appeared to distinguish between the two groups. The dagger piercing a heart was modified, adding an arrow: this tattoo indicated a legitimate thief and his desire to seek vengeance against those who had violated the thieves' code. The compass rose became an indicator of aggression to prison officials and the "bitches", indicating the vow that "I will never wear epaulettes" and hatred towards those who had served in the Soviet Army. Secret acronyms were created by legitimate thieves that the "bitches" wouldn't recognise, such as СЛОН (SLON, "elephant"), meaning Суки Любят Острый Нож (Suki Lyubyat Ostry Nozh, "Bitches love a sharp knife").[11]
Khrushchev's reforms and decline of tattooing
In the 1950s Nikita Khrushchev declared a policy for the eradication of criminality from Soviet society. Along with propaganda denouncing the "traditional thief" that had grown in popularity in Russian culture, punishments in the prisons intensified for anyone that identified as a legitimate thief, including beatings and torture. As a response to this persecution, the thieves' laws were intensified and the punishment for prisoners wearing unearned tattoos increased from removal to rape and murder.[12]
By the 1970s, the intensification of the thieves' laws had resulted in reprisals against the legitimate thieves, orchestrated by prison authorities who would often throw a legitimate thief into cells with prisoners they had punished or raped.[13] To reduce tensions, criminal leaders outlawed rites of passage and outlawed rape as a punishment. Fights between inmates were outlawed and conflicts were to be resolved through mediation by senior thieves. Additionally, a fashion for tattooing had spread through juvenile prisons, increasing the number of inmates with "illegitimate" tattoos. This ubiquity along with the reduction in violence meant that the "criminal authorities" stopped punishing "unearned" tattoos.
In 1985, perestroika and the new increase in tattoo parlours made tattooing fashionable, and further diluted the status of tattoos as a solely criminal attribute.[2]
Application
The tattooists, or kol'shchiki (prickers), were held in high regard. Tattoo needles can be referred to as peshnya (ice pick), pchyolka (bee), shpora (spur), or shilo (sting), while the tattoo machine can be referred to as mashinka (little machine) or bormashina (dentist's drill), and the ink is referred to as either mazut (fuel oil) or gryaz (dirt). The tattoos themselves were referred to as a reklama (advertising), regalka (regalia), kleimo (brand), or rospis (painting).[9]
Designs
Common designs and themes grew over the years, often having different meanings depending on the location of the tattoo. The imagery often does not literally mean what it is depicting—for example, tattoos displaying Nazi imagery represent a rejection of authority rather than an adherence to Nazism.[citation needed] Combinations of imagery, such as a rose, barbed wire and a dagger, form combined meanings. According to lexicographer Alexei Plutser-Sarno, the tattoos become the only "real aspects of his life".[14] They are a symbol of the owner's commitment to war against the non-thief, the police (menty), and the "bitch" (suka). The environment in the Soviet era was one of heavy visual propaganda, and the tattoos are a reaction to that, and a "grin at authority" (oskal na vlast), often directly parodying official Soviet slogans with Communist Party leaders often depicted as devils, donkeys, or pigs.[14]
A thief's collection of tattoos represent his "suit" (mast), which indicates his status within the community of thieves and his control over other thieves within the thieves' law. They might also represent his "thief's family", naming others within hearts or with the traditional tom cat image.[7]
Stars – Indicate authority. On the shoulders or the knees ("I kneel to no-one"). The eight-pointed star denotes rank as thief in law depending on where it is placed.[15]
Cat – Traditional sign of a thief, often with a hat (from "Puss in Boots"). The abbreviation "KOT" (kot; cat) stands for "a native prison inhabitant" (коренной обитатель тюрьмы, korennoy obitatel tiurmy)[16]
Portrait of Lenin and/or Stalin – Often tattooed on the chest, partly from a belief that a firing squad would never follow orders to shoot such an image.[17][18] May have originated as a sign of pride among prisoners after the Bolshevik Revolution, as former prisoners were now in control of the country.[19]
Orthodox church – Indicates a thief, usually a chest tattoo, with the number of cupolas indicating the number of convictions.[20]
Suns – Rays can be used to indicate number and length of sentences served.
Skull – Indicates a murderer. Following the abolition of the death sentence for murder in 1947, the number of murders rose significantly, with an extra 10-year sentence being no deterrent to prisoners already sentenced to life.[21]
Cross – The traditional "thieves' cross" is usually tattooed on the chest. This was very common.[22]
Ships – With full sails it can indicate someone that has fled from custody, a gulnoy or gulat, or that a wearer is a nomadic thief who travels to steal.[23]
Dragons – Indicate a "shark" or someone who has stolen state or collectively owned property.[24]
Spider, when facing up, denotes an active criminal; facing down, it denotes one who has left the lifestyle.[25]
Medals – Can indicate rank or, if done in pre-Soviet style, indicates contempt for authority.
Eagle – Traditionally indicated a senior-authority figure; if the eagle is carrying someone it can indicate a rapist.[26]
Hooded Executioner – A prisoner who has murdered a relative.[18]
Bells – These can indicate a long sentence with no chance of early release, a long sentence served without parole for being uncooperative to the authorities, or, if on the right shoulder, it can indicate a thief who stole from church.[27]
Images of the Madonna with Child (St Mary and the infant Jesus Christ) mean "Prison is my home" and act as a talisman[28] or signify a criminal lifestyle from a young age.[29]
Eyes – When on the stomach indicate the owner is gay, or on the chest can indicate they are "watching over you". On the buttocks can indicate someone who receives anal sex.[17][30]
A circled "A" (done in the style of a finger ring) indicates an anarchist (анархист, anarkhist)[31]
Circle with a dot inside (as finger ring) known as "The Roundstone" - Indicates an orphan (круглый сирота, krugliy sirota), or the saying "Trust only yourself" (надейся только на себя, nadeisya tolko na sebya)[32]
Skull inside a square (as finger ring) - Indicates a conviction for robbery (судим за разбой, sudim za razboy)[31]
Quincunx - Indicates one who has done extensive time, from the saying "the four walls and I" or "four guard towers and me" (четыре вышки и я, chetyre vyshki i ya)[31]
Snake entwined with a woman - Indicates someone receives penetration during anal sex, especially if tattooed on the back.[13] Often a forced tattoo.[33]
"Beauty marks" or dots on the forehead indicate a "bitch" who has sided with the prison authorities. Beneath the eyes indicates a receiving sexual partner and by the mouth indicates that someone gives oral sex. On the chin indicates a rat (krysa) who steals from other prisoners. A forced tattoo.[33]
"Red" card suits, diamonds and hearts, on the back indicates the owner receives anal sex. Often a forced tattoo.[33]
Hand and ring tattoos
Tattoos on the hands and fingers were common, and for women, palm tattoos showing insults were popular in the 1940s and 50s.[35]
A church with three cupolas – "eternal prisoner" applied to someone with at least three convictions.[36]
An eagle – denotes an authoritative thief, or an escapee from a camp.[37]
The letters "ОМУТ" (omut; water hole) on the back of the hand indicate one from whom it is difficult to get away (от меня уйти трудно, ot menya uiti trudno, it's hard to get away from me)[38]
The letters "МИР" (mir; world or peace) on the back of the hand denote one who will never be rehabilitated or re-educated (меня исправит расстрел, menya ispravit rasstrel, only execution will correct me)[31]
A heart indicates a despised thief with no status, convicted for rape.[32]
A crown indicates a criminal boss or authority.[39]
White cross on a black background; "I've been through the crosses" indicating that they have served solitary confinement.[39]
Silhouettes of birds; "Love and cherish freedom".[39]
Crosses on knuckles can indicate number of times in prison.[40]
Forced tattoos
There are tattoos that are forcibly applied to signify "demotion" (razzhalovanie). These may depict sexual acts, and are designed to lower the owner in the eyes of other prisoners and draw harsh treatment from them. These can be applied to those convicted of sexual crimes, those who have not paid a debt, stool pigeons (ssuchenye), stooges (chukhany), and signify that the owner is expelled from the privileged section of a thieves society and are "untouchables" (neprikasaemye/chushki). Other thieves must not accept anything from them or be considered "infected" (zakontachit'sya). As a thief is "born" with his tattoos, they can also be used to signify his "death" and new status as an "untouchable". Even established thieves could be demoted, if, for example, they lost a card game and failed to honor their bets.[41]
The Gulag was a system of forced labor camps in the Soviet Union. The word Gulag originally referred only to the division of the Soviet secret police that was in charge of running the forced labor camps from the 1930s to the early 1950s during Joseph Stalin's rule, but in English literature the term is popularly used for the system of forced labor throughout the Soviet era. The abbreviation GULAG (ГУЛАГ) stands for "Гла́вное Управле́ние исправи́тельно-трудовы́х ЛАГере́й", but the full official name of the agency changed several times.
Sharashkas were secret research and development laboratories operating from 1930 to the 1950s within the Soviet Gulag labor camp system, as well as in other facilities under the supervision of the Soviet secret service. Formally various secret R&D facilities were called "special design bureau" Russian: особое конструкторское бюро, ОКБ and similar terms. Etymologically, the word sharashka derives from a Russian slang expression sharashkina kontora,, an ironic, derogatory term to denote a poorly-organized, impromptu, or bluffing organization, which in its turn comes from the criminal argot term sharaga (шарага) for a band of thieves, hoodlums, etc.)
Penal transportation was the relocation of convicted criminals, or other persons regarded as undesirable, to a distant place, often a colony, for a specified term; later, specifically established penal colonies became their destination. While the prisoners may have been released once the sentences were served, they generally did not have the resources to return home.
Katorga ) was a system of penal labor in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union.
The Solovki special camp, was set up in 1923 on the Solovetsky Islands in the White Sea as a remote and inaccessible place of detention, primarily intended for socialist opponents of Soviet Russia's new Bolshevik regime.
Criminal tattoos are classified in different ways. The meaning and histories of criminal tattoos vary from country to country, and they are commonly assumed to be associated with gang membership. They could also be a record of the wearer's personal history—such as their skills, specialties, accomplishments, incarceration, world view and/or means of personal expression. Tattoos have been empirically associated with deviance, personality disorders, and criminality. There is no direct correlation between tattoos and criminals, but we can observe the developed history of tattoos and their meanings in countries such as Australia, France, Italy, Japan, Russia, and the United States.
The Bitch Wars, or Suka Wars were armed confrontations occurred in the Soviet Gulag labor-camp system between 1945 and 1953. The battles took place between groups of prisoners who agreed to collaborate with administration of labor camps and prisons ("Bitches") and "honest" criminals who followed a "thief's code" that prohibited any collaboration with the prison authorities. In this conflict rival sides were often identified by the system of tattoos common in Soviet prisons at the time.
A "thief in law" in the Soviet Union, the post-Soviet states, and their respective diasporas is a formal and special status of "criminal authority", a professional criminal who follows certain criminal traditions and enjoys an elite position among other members within organized crime and correctional facility environments and who has informal authority over lower-status members.
Penal labour is a term for various kinds of forced labour that prisoners are required to perform, typically manual labour. The work may be light or hard, depending on the context. Forms of sentence involving penal labour have included involuntary servitude, penal servitude, and imprisonment with hard labour. The term may refer to several related scenarios: labour as a form of punishment, the prison system used as a means to secure labour, and labour as providing occupation for convicts. These scenarios can be applied to those imprisoned for political, religious, war, or other reasons as well as to criminal convicts.
Fenya or fen'ka is a Russian cant language originated among the travelling peddlers and currently used in the Russian criminal underworld and among former detainees of Russian penal establishments. In modern Russian language it is also referred to as blatnoy language, where "blatnoy" is a slang expression for "professional criminal". It is also widely used in "thieves' songs".
The Kengir uprising was a prisoner rebellion that occurred in Kengir (Steplag), a Soviet MVD special camp for political prisoners, during May and June 1954. Its duration and intensity distinguished it from other Gulag rebellions during the same period, such as the Vorkuta uprising and Norilsk uprising.
Anatoly Tikhonovich Marchenko was a Soviet dissident, author, and human rights campaigner, who became one of the first two recipients of the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought of the European Parliament when it was awarded to him posthumously in 1988.
Thomas Sgovio was an American artist, ex-Communist, and former inmate of a Soviet Union GULAG camp in Kolyma. His father was an Italian American communist, deported by the US authorities to the USSR because of his political activities.
Forced labour was used extensively in the Soviet Union and the following categories may be distinguished.
The Mark of Cain is a 2000 documentary film on Russian criminal tattoos directed by Alix Lambert.
The Vorkuta Corrective Labor Camp, commonly known as Vorkutlag (Воркутлаг), was a major Gulag labor camp in the Soviet Union located in Vorkuta, Komi Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. It was in operation from 1932 until 1962.
The Federal Penitentiary Service is a federal agency of the Ministry of Justice of Russia responsible for correctional services.
Prisons in Russia consist of four types of facilities: pre-trial institutions; educative or juvenile colonies; corrective colonies; and prisons.
Federal Governmental Institution — penal colony № 2 with special conditions of economic activity of the main directorate of the Federal Penitentiary Service of Russia in Perm Krai, popularly known as White Swan, is a prison in Solikamsk, Perm Krai, Russia. It is one of the seven maximum-security supermax prisons operated by the Federal Penitentiary Service for convicts sentenced to life imprisonment in Russia.
Gulag Boss: A Soviet Memoir is a 2011 memoir by Fyodor Vasilevich Mochulsky (1918–1999), a Soviet Engineer and eventual Head of numerous Gulag camps in the northern Russian region of Pechorlag, Pechora, from 1940 to 1946. Under the orders of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), Mochulsky oversaw the construction of a 500 km-long rail line from the Pechorlag camps, bordering the Arctic Circle, to central Russia, with a goal to connect "remote Pechora Camps to the outside world". The book was published posthumously by the Oxford University Press in 2011. It is introduced as well as translated and edited by the historical sociologist, Deborah A. Kaple.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
