Salammbô

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Salammbô
FlaubertSalammbo.jpg
Title page of Salammbô by Gustave Flaubert
Author Gustave Flaubert
LanguageFrench
Genre Historical fiction
Publisher Michel Lévy Frères
Publication date
1862
Publication placeFrance
Pages474 (first edition)
Original text
Salammbô at French Wikisource

Salammbô (1862) is a historical novel by Gustave Flaubert. It is set in Carthage immediately before and during the Mercenary Revolt (241–237 BCE). Flaubert's principal source was Book I of the Histories , written by the Greek historian Polybius. The novel was enormously popular when first published and jumpstarted a renewed interest in the history of the Roman Republic's conflict with the North African Phoenician outpost of Carthage.

Contents

Genesis

After the legal troubles that followed the publication of Madame Bovary , when he was tried and acquitted on charges of "immorality", [1] Flaubert sought a less controversial subject for his next novel. In 1857, Flaubert decided to conduct research in Carthage, writing in March to Félicien de Saulcy, a French archeologist about his plans. In a letter to Madame de Chantepie dated 23 January 1858, he described his anticipation: "I absolutely have to go to Africa. This is why, around the end of March, I will go back to the country of exotic dates. I am giddy with excitement. I will once again spend my days on horseback and my nights in a tent. What a happy breath I will take as I get onboard the steam boat in Marseilles!" From 12 April to 5 June 1858, Flaubert traveled to Tunisia, to explore the locations of his novel, though little survived from ancient times. [2]

Publication

Contemporary readers familiar with Flaubert's previous realistic work, Madame Bovary , and the legal controversy that followed its publication made Salammbô a bestseller, though its violence and sensuality bore little relationship to Flaubert's previous work. It was praised for its style and story. Its descriptions of Carthaginian costume influenced contemporary fashions and the attention it paid to Roman North Africa inspired new interest in archeological exploration there.

Plot

Salammbo by Alfons Mucha (1896) Alfons Mucha - 1896 - Salammbo.jpg
Salammbô by Alfons Mucha (1896)

After the First Punic War, Carthage is unable to fulfill promises made to its army of mercenaries, and finds itself under attack. The fictional title character, a priestess and the daughter of Hamilcar Barca, the foremost Carthaginian general, is the object of the obsessive lust of Matho, a leader of the mercenaries. With the help of the scheming freed slave, Spendius, Matho steals the sacred veil of Carthage, the Zaïmph, prompting Salammbô to enter the mercenaries' camp in an attempt to steal it back. The Zaïmph is an ornate bejewelled veil draped about the statue of the goddess Tanit in the sanctum sanctorum of her temple: the veil is the city's guardian and touching it will bring death to the perpetrator.

Characters

The transliterations follow J. W. Matthews' English version.

Quotations

The opening passage:

It was at Megara, a suburb of Carthage, in the gardens of Hamilcar, that the soldiers whom he had commanded in Sicily were holding a great feast to celebrate the anniversary of the Battle of Eryx. The master was absent, their numbers were large, and accordingly they ate and drank in perfect freedom.

The description of child sacrifice in chapter 13:

The brazen arms were working more quickly. They paused no longer. Every time that a child was placed in them the priests of Moloch spread out their hands upon him to burden him with the crimes of the people, vociferating: "They are not men but oxen!" and the multitude round about repeated: "Oxen! oxen!" The devout exclaimed: "Lord! Eat!".

Historical inaccuracies

Flaubert departed from the Greek historian Polybius' account of the Punic Wars when it suited his purposes. Though the mercenaries had executed a Carthaginian general named Hannibal, Flaubert did not want to contribute to confusion of that Hannibal with the far more familiar Hannibal who commanded the military forces of Carthage in the Second Punic War in the 3rd century BCE. He therefore changed the name of his character to Hanno, the name of other Carthaginian military figures of less prominence.

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Related Research Articles

This article concerns the period 239 BC – 230 BC.

Year 238 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Gracchus and Falto. The denomination 238 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Year 240 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Centho and Tuditanus. The denomination 240 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Hamilcar Barca or Barcas was a Carthaginian general and statesman, leader of the Barcid family, and father of Hannibal, Hasdrubal and Mago. He was also father-in-law to Hasdrubal the Fair.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mercenary War</span> 3rd-century BC mutiny of part of the Carthaginian army

The Mercenary War, also known as the Truceless War, was a mutiny by troops that were employed by Carthage at the end of the First Punic War (264–241 BC), supported by uprisings of African settlements revolting against Carthaginian control. It lasted from 241 to late 238 or early 237 BC and ended with Carthage suppressing both the mutiny and the revolt.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of the Bagradas River (240 BC)</span> Battle of 240 BC during the Mercenary War

The Battle of the Bagradas River was fought between a Carthaginian army led by Hamilcar Barca and a rebel force led by Spendius in 240 BC in what is now north-east Tunisia. Carthage was fighting a coalition of mutinous soldiers and rebellious African cities in the Mercenary War, which had started late the previous year in the wake of the First Punic War. The rebels were blockading Carthage and besieging the northern ports of Utica and Hippo. A Carthaginian army commanded by Hanno had attempted and failed to relieve Utica early in 240 BC. A second army was assembled in Carthage and entrusted to Hamilcar, who had commanded Carthaginian forces on Sicily for the last six years of the First Punic War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Utica</span> Battle of the Mercenary War

The Battle of Utica took place early in 240 BC between a Carthaginian army commanded by Hanno and a force of rebellious mutineers possibly led by Spendius. It was the first major engagement of the Mercenary War between Carthage and the combined forces of mutinous ex-Carthaginian troops and rebellious African cities which broke out in the wake of the First Punic War. Both sides were routed during the course of the battle, which ended with the rebels occupying the field but was strategically inconclusive.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barcids</span> Notable family in the ancient city of Carthage

The Barcid family was a notable Punic (Phoenician) family in the ancient city of Carthage; many of its members were fierce enemies of the Roman Republic. "Barcid" is an adjectival form coined by historians ; the actual byname was the Northwest Semitic Barca or Barcas, which means lightning. See برق, barq in Arabic, berqa in Maltese, Akkadian and Neo-Assyrian Syriac (Barkho).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of the Saw</span> Military campaign of 238 BC

The Battle of the Saw was the culminating battle of a campaign fought between a Carthaginian army led by Hamilcar Barca and a rebel force led by Spendius in 238 BC in what is now northern Tunisia. Carthage was fighting a coalition of mutinous soldiers and rebellious African cities in the Mercenary War which had started in 241 BC. The rebels had been besieging Carthage while the Carthaginian field army under Hamilcar raided their supply lines. Under this pressure the rebels pulled back to their base at Tunis and despatched their own army to prevent Hamilcar's activities and, ideally, destroy his army.

<i>Salammbô</i> (Mussorgsky) Unfinished opera, written 1863–1866

Salammbô [alternative title: The Libyan ] is an unfinished opera in four acts by Modest Mussorgsky. The fragmentary Russian language libretto was written by the composer, and is based on the novel Salammbô (1862) by Gustave Flaubert, but includes verses taken from poems by Vasiliy Zhukovsky, Apollon Maykov, Aleksandr Polezhayev, and other Russian poets.

Naravas was a 3rd Century BCE Numidian chief who fought in the Mercenary War, he first joined the rebels, but changed sides in 239 BCE.

During the siege of Tunis in October 238 BC a rebel army under Mathos was besieged by a Carthaginian force under Hamilcar Barca and Hannibal. The Carthaginian army, which had served on Sicily during the First Punic War, mutinied in late 241 BC in the wake of Carthage's defeat, starting the Mercenary War. After three years of increasingly bitter war, the Carthaginians defeated the rebel field army at the Battle of the Saw, capturing its leaders. The Carthaginians then moved to besiege the rebels' strongest remaining stronghold at Tunis.

Hannibal was a Carthaginian general who took part in the Mercenary War between Carthage and rebelling mercenaries.

Hamilcar's victory with Naravas took place in 240 BC in what is now north-west Tunisia. A Carthaginian army led by Hamilcar Barca defeated a rebel army led by Spendius and Autaritus, after 2,000 Numidian cavalry led by Naravas defected from the rebels to Carthage. The precise location of the battle is unknown. Carthage was fighting a coalition of mutinous soldiers and rebellious African cities in the Mercenary War which had started in 241 BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mathos</span> Anti-Carthaginian rebel general active 241-238 BC

Mathos was a Libyan from the North African possessions of Carthage and was recruited into the Carthaginian Army during the First Punic War at some point prior to 241 BC. Mathos's date of birth is unknown, as are most details of his activities prior to his coming to prominence as a low-ranking officer in 241 BC.

<i>The Loves of Salammbo</i> 1960 film

The Loves of Salammbo is a 1960 historical drama directed by Sergio Grieco. It is loosely based on the novel Salammbô by Gustave Flaubert.

Gisco was a Carthaginian general who served during the closing years of the First Punic War and took a leading part in the events which sparked the Mercenary War. He was a citizen of the city state of Carthage, which was located in what is now Tunisia. His date of birth and age at death are both unknown, as are his activities prior to his rise to prominence towards the end of the First Punic War.

The Battle of Leptis Parva was fought in 238 BC between a Carthaginian army of over 30,000 commanded by Hamilcar Barca and Hanno, and approximately 20,000 mutinous Carthaginian soldiers and North African rebels under Matho in the North African province of Byzacium. The battle was the final major conflict of the Mercenary War and resulted in a decisive victory for the Carthaginians.

Spendius was a former Roman slave who led a rebel army against Carthage, in what is known as the Mercenary War. He escaped or was rescued from slavery in Campania and was recruited into the Carthaginian Army during the First Punic War at some point prior to 241 BC. Spendius's date of birth is unknown, as are most details of his activities prior to his coming to prominence as a mutineer in 241 BC. After the First Punic War, Carthage attempted to pay its soldiers less than the full amount due to them before demobilising them. Spendius faced death by torture if he were returned to Roman authority and took a dim view of the increasingly warm relationship between Carthage and Rome. He came to the fore as a member of the army most vocal in resisting Carthaginian efforts to settle the dispute. When the disagreement broke down into a full-scale mutiny in late 241 BC he was elected co-general with the African Mathos by his fellow mutineers. Mathos spread the news of the mutiny to the main African settlements under Carthaginian suzerainty and they rose in rebellion. Provisions, money and 70,000 reinforcements poured in. For four years Spendius led a rebel army against Carthage, in what is known as the Mercenary War, with mixed success.

References

  1. Ellison, Heidi (2 June 2021). "Art Imitates Life Imitates Art". Paris Update. Archived from the original on 2 June 2021. Retrieved 3 June 2021.
  2. Flaubert, Gustave (1980). Correspondances, Tome II. Paris: Bibliothèque de la Pléiade. pp. 846, 877. ISBN   9782070106684.
  3. Jam, Marleb. "Jacques Martin". Lambiek Comiclopedia. Retrieved 3 June 2021.
  4. "Salambô: Fureur! Passion! Éléphants!". Musée des Beaux-Art. 28 January 2021. Archived from the original on 25 May 2021. Retrieved 3 June 2021.
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