Biopolymers are natural polymers produced by the cells of living organisms. Like other polymers, biopolymers consist of monomeric units that are covalently bonded in chains to form larger molecules. There are three main classes of biopolymers, classified according to the monomers used and the structure of the biopolymer formed: polynucleotides, polypeptides, and polysaccharides. The Polynucleotides, RNA and DNA, are long polymers of nucleotides. Polypeptides include proteins and shorter polymers of amino acids; some major examples include collagen, actin, and fibrin. Polysaccharides are linear or branched chains of sugar carbohydrates; examples include starch, cellulose, and alginate. Other examples of biopolymers include natural rubbers, suberin and lignin, cutin and cutan, melanin, and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs).
Chitin (C8H13O5N)n ( KY-tin) is a long-chain polymer of N-acetylglucosamine, an amide derivative of glucose. Chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in nature (behind only cellulose); an estimated 1 billion tons of chitin are produced each year in the biosphere. It is a primary component of cell walls in fungi (especially filamentous and mushroom-forming fungi), the exoskeletons of arthropods such as crustaceans and insects, the radulae, cephalopod beaks and gladii of molluscs and in some nematodes and diatoms. It is also synthesised by at least some fish and lissamphibians. Commercially, chitin is extracted from the shells of crabs, shrimps, shellfish and lobsters, which are major by-products of the seafood industry. The structure of chitin is comparable to cellulose, forming crystalline nanofibrils or whiskers. It is functionally comparable to the protein keratin. Chitin has proved useful for several medicinal, industrial and biotechnological purposes.
Chitosan is a linear polysaccharide composed of randomly distributed β-(1→4)-linked D-glucosamine and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine. It is made by treating the chitin shells of shrimp and other crustaceans with an alkaline substance, such as sodium hydroxide.
Alginic acid, also called algin, is a naturally occurring, edible polysaccharide found in brown algae. It is hydrophilic and forms a viscous gum when hydrated. When the alginic acid binds with sodium and calcium ions, the resulting salts are known as alginates. Its colour ranges from white to yellowish-brown. It is sold in filamentous, granular, or powdered forms.
Natural fibers or natural fibres are fibers that are produced by geological processes, or from the bodies of plants or animals. They can be used as a component of composite materials, where the orientation of fibers impacts the properties. Natural fibers can also be matted into sheets to make paper or felt.
Rajouri is a district in the Jammu division of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. The Line of Control, between the Indian- and Pakistani-administered Jammu and Kashmir, lies to its west, Poonch to its north, the Reasi district to the east and the Jammu district to its south. Rajouri is famous for its "Kalari". Representing an ancient principality, Rajouri was a joint district, along with Reasi, at the time of princely state's accession to India in 1947. The two tehsils were separated and Rajouri was merged with the Poonch district. Rajouri again became a separate district along with Reasi in 1968 till 2006 when both were separated again. The Rajouri district comprises 13 tehsils (boroughs). The land is mostly fertile and mountainous. Maize, wheat and rice are the main crops of the area and the main source of the irrigation is the river Tawi that originates from the mountains of Pir Panjal.
Lignocellulose refers to plant dry matter (biomass), so called lignocellulosic biomass. It is the most abundantly available raw material on the Earth for the production of biofuels. It is composed of two kinds of carbohydrate polymers, cellulose and hemicellulose, and an aromatic-rich polymer called lignin. Any biomass rich in cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin are commonly referred to as lignocellulosic biomass. Each component has a distinct chemical behavior. Being a composite of three very different components makes the processing of lignocellulose challenging. The evolved resistance to degradation or even separation is referred to as recalcitrance. Overcoming this recalcitrance to produce useful, high value products requires a combination of heat, chemicals, enzymes, and microorganisms. These carbohydrate-containing polymers contain different sugar monomers and they are covalently bound to lignin.
A biocomposite is a composite material formed by a matrix (resin) and a reinforcement of natural fibers. Environmental concern and cost of synthetic fibres have led the foundation of using natural fibre as reinforcement in polymeric composites. The matrix phase is formed by polymers derived from renewable and nonrenewable resources. The matrix is important to protect the fibers from environmental degradation and mechanical damage, to hold the fibers together and to transfer the loads on it. In addition, biofibers are the principal components of biocomposites, which are derived from biological origins, for example fibers from crops, recycled wood, waste paper, crop processing byproducts or regenerated cellulose fiber (viscose/rayon). The interest in biocomposites is rapidly growing in terms of industrial applications and fundamental research, due to its great benefits. Biocomposites can be used alone, or as a complement to standard materials, such as carbon fiber. Advocates of biocomposites state that use of these materials improve health and safety in their production, are lighter in weight, have a visual appeal similar to that of wood, and are environmentally superior.
Biotextiles are specialized materials engineered from natural or synthetic fibers. These textiles are designed to interact with biological systems, offering properties such as biocompatibility, porosity, and mechanical strength or are designed to be environmentally friendly for typical household applications. There are several uses for biotextiles since they are a broad category. The most common uses are for medical or household use. However, this term may also refer to textiles constructed from biological waste product. These biotextiles are not typically used for industrial purposes.
Poly(acrylic acid) (PAA; trade name Carbomer) is a polymer with the formula (CH2-CHCO2H)n. It is a derivative of acrylic acid (CH2=CHCO2H). In addition to the homopolymers, a variety of copolymers and crosslinked polymers, and partially deprotonated derivatives thereof are known and of commercial value. In a water solution at neutral pH, PAA is an anionic polymer, i.e., many of the side chains of PAA lose their protons and acquire a negative charge. Partially or wholly deprotonated PAAs are polyelectrolytes, with the ability to absorb and retain water and swell to many times their original volume. These properties – acid-base and water-attracting – are the bases of many applications.
Ecovative Design LLC is a materials company headquartered in Green Island, New York, that provides sustainable alternatives to plastics and polystyrene foams for packaging, building materials and other applications by using mushroom technology.
Edible packaging refers to packaging which is edible and biodegradable.
Curran is a microcrystalline nanocellulose fibre derived from the pulp of root vegetables. It was developed by Scottish scientists David Hepworth and Eric Whale, with funding from the Scottish Government. The sources of root vegetable pulp used to manufacture Curran include carrots, sugar beets, and turnips. It is named after curran, the Scottish Gaelic word for "carrot". The material was developed as a potential substitute for carbon fibre and is often used in polymer composites. It has numerous industrial and technological applications, especially for the production of paints and sporting equipment.
Transparent wood composites are novel wood materials which have up to 90% transparency. Some have better mechanical properties than wood itself. They were made for the first time in 1992. These materials are significantly more biodegradable than glass and plastics. Transparent wood is also shatterproof, making it suitable for applications like cell phone screens.
Mubarak Ahmad Khan is a Bangladeshi scientist and a researcher in jute's commercial uses and possibilities. According to the science-based research database, Scopus, he is considered to be the leading scientist in the study of jute worldwide. He is currently serving as the Scientific Advisor of Bangladesh Jute Mills corporation (BJMC). Among his inventions are the Sonali Bag, Jutin, and helmets and tiles made from jute.
Chowdhary Zulfkar Ali is an Indian politician and former cabinet minister of Jammu and Kashmir. He is an advocate by profession and was a member of the 11th and 12th Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly from Darhal constituency. He has also served as Cabinet Minister from 2015 to 2018. He was also associated with Jammu and Kashmir Peoples Democratic Party and served as district chief of the party for district Rajouri 2003 to 2013. He resigned from the PDP and became one of the founding member of Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party. Presently Vice President of the party. in August 2024, He joined BJP.
Manjusri Misra is an Indian engineer. She is a Tier 1 Canada Research Chair in Sustainable Biocomposites at the University of Guelph's School of Engineering. Misra is also the lead scientist at U of G's Bioproducts Discovery and Development Centre and a Fellow of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers and the Royal Society of Chemistry.
Amar K. Mohanty is a material scientist and biobased material engineer, academic and author. He is a Professor and Distinguished Research Chair in Sustainable Biomaterials at the Ontario Agriculture College and is the Director of the Bioproducts Discovery and Development Centre at the University of Guelph.
Javier G. Fernandez is a Spanish physicist and bioengineer. He is associate professor at the Singapore University of Technology and Design. He is known for his work in biomimetic materials and sustainable biomanufacturing, particularly for pioneering chitin's use for general and sustainable manufacturing.
Mohd Sapuan Salit is a material scientist, engineer, and the head of Advanced Engineering Materials and Composites (AEMC), a research centre in Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). He is a professor in composite material at the Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia. Sapuan is also currently the chief executive editor for all Pertanika journals.
