Sieges of Tiberias | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
| Banu Zaydan multazims (tax farmers) | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Sulayman Pasha al-Azm (Damascus) † Ibrahim Pasha al-Azm (Sidon) | Zahir al-Umar (Tiberias) Sa'd al-Umar (Deir Hanna) | ||||||
Strength | |||||||
Field artillery At least 5 mortars Demolition equipment and experts | At least 300 horsemen 4 cannons | ||||||
Location of the Tiberias in modern Israel |
The sieges of Tiberias occurred in late 1742 and the summer of 1743 when the Ottoman governor of Damascus, Sulayman Pasha al-Azm, twice attempted and failed to eliminate the increasingly powerful, Tiberias-based multazim (tax farmer), Zahir al-Umar, and destroy his fortifications.
Sulayman Pasha operated under orders from the imperial government to execute Zahir, and was militarily backed by the governors of Sidon and Tripoli, as well as the district governors of Nablus, Jerusalem, Gaza, and Bedouin levies. Zahir and his family, the Banu Zaydan, controlled and fortified several places in the Galilee, with Zahir based in Tiberias, and his brother, Sa'd al-Umar, in nearby Deir Hanna. In 1737 and 1738, Zahir had intensified his raids, incursions, and operations to areas under the jurisdiction of Damascus, prompting the imperial orders to eliminate him and his local allies.
The first siege of Tiberias lasted for nearly three months, with Sulayman Pasha unable to breach the fortifications and forced to withdraw to lead the Hajj caravan to Mecca. Zahir strengthened Tiberias, while unsuccessfully lobbying the imperial government through the French merchants of Acre and the Jewish community in Tiberias, who attempted to leverage their contacts in the imperial capital, Constantinople. Shortly after his return to Damascus, Sulayman Pasha renewed the campaign in July 1743, with more troops and weapons. He attempted to reduce Deir Hanna, which supplied Tiberias with arms and provisions, but died suddenly in his camp. Zahir soon after reached a détente with Sulayman Pasha's successor, As'ad Pasha al-Azm. The next fourteen years were generally free of hostilities with Damascus, which enabled Zahir to focus on occupying the port of Acre in the 1740s.
Around 1730, a local potentate, Zahir al-Umar, backed by his family, the Banu Zaydan, and a powerful Bedouin tribe, the Banu Saqr, ousted the government-appointed mutesellim (sub-governor and tax collector) of Tiberias. [1] The Banu Zaydan had already been well established in the Tiberias area. From at least the late 17th century, its members, including Zahir's father, Umar al-Zaydani, had served as multazims (local, limited-term tax farmers) over different subdistricts in the Galilee. [2] As multazims, they were officially subordinate to the governor of Sidon Eyalet, the province which spanned the Galilee, southern Mount Lebanon and the adjacent Mediterranean coast. They collected taxes from their subdistricts for the governor, pocketed the surplus, and had to annually renew their farming rights. While ostensibly under the governor's authority, the governor of Sidon lacked real power outside of the city of Sidon itself and usually held office no longer than two years. [3] Zahir obtained the tax farming rights of Tiberias from Sidon after occupying it by force, [1] and took advantage of the governor's weakness to unilaterally expand his family's tax farms throughout the decade. [3]
In June 1738 the ulema and other notables of Damascus sent a petition to the Ottoman imperial authorities complaining of Zahir's assaults, raids and intrigues against areas under the jurisdiction of Damascus Eyalet, particularly the nahiyas (subdistricts) of Quneitra and Hauran and the sanjaks (districts) of Lajjun and Nablus. In 1737 or 1738 he had used the absence of the governor of Damascus, who was leading the Hajj pilgrim caravan to Mecca, to oust the government-appointed chief of the Bedouin in the Damascus region, Sheikh Dayabi, with an ally, Sheikh Ibn Kulayb. The Bedouin chief of Damascus was primarily responsible for supplying the governor with camels for the Hajj caravan. Although Dayabi was restored soon after the return of the governor to Damascus, the act was a major affront to his authority. Zahir followed up by leading an assault on the city, with backing from allies among the Twelver Shia Muslim (called 'Metawali') clans of Jabal Amil and the paramount chief of the Mount Lebanon Druze, Mulhim al-Shihabi. [4]
Elsewhere in 1738, Zahir had encroached upon the Nablus and Lajjun sanjaks, occupying, plundering, or razing villages there, including in the Atlit coastland. East of the River Jordan, Zahir led a raid that year against Turkmen tribes in the Hauran, plundering their herds and other property. [4] Zahir's incursions were a continuation of his campaigns to expand his Tiberias-based territory. While his infringements on the jurisdiction of Damascus in the early 1730s had been limited to the province's sanjaks in Palestine (Lajjun and Nablus), the moves of 1737 and 1738 expanded his scope of operations to areas east of the Jordan. These were far more alarming to the governor of Damascus, being closer to his seat of power, and alarmed the imperial government as it posed a threat to the all-important Hajj pilgrim route between Damascus and Mecca. [4]
In addition to the direct attacks by Zahir against areas in the Damascus Eyalet, the governor of Damascus became alarmed at Zahir's growing power in the Galilee, which was outside of his jurisdiction, and the fortification of Tiberias in particular. As part of his annual tax collection tour, called the dawra, in the sanjaks of Palestine, namely Lajjun, Nablus, and Jerusalem, the governor had to enter the region through the Daughters of Jacob Bridge, the preferred route, or the more dangerous Majami Bridge, north and south of Tiberias, respectively. The close proximity of these access points to Zahir's Tiberias was viewed as a threat to the crucial dawra. Thus, according to the historian Amnon Cohen, eliminating Zahir had become "a top priority" for the governor, while the imperial government likewise was determined to neutralize him and destroy the fortifications of Tiberias. [5]
Soon after the 1738 Damascene petition, the imperial government ordered the governor of Damascus to suppress Zahir and his Galilee-based subordinates, [6] supplying the governor with five mortars and a military expert to supplement his arsenal of field artillery. [7] Specific instructions were given to destroy Zahir's fortifications in Tiberias, his brother Sa'd's in Deir Hanna, their cousin Muhammad al-Ali al-Zaydani's in Tarbikha or Tarshiha, and the forts at Jiddin and Suhmata, controlled respectively by their local subordinates Husayn al-Khaliq and Muhammad Nafi. [8] Nevertheless, no action was carried out by the governor and Zahir continued operating as before. [9] He strengthened the fortifications of Tiberias, positioning four cannons, acquired from Europe, on a tower he built outside the town, and stocked up on provisions. [10] He also continued raids into the Hauran and, in 1741, attacked the routes connecting Damascus with Palestine and Egypt. [9] The governor of Damascus lodged complaints about these attacks to the imperial authorities. While previous imperial orders demanded Zahir "be punished", this time Constantinople explicitly called for Zahir's execution. The government's plans were stalled as the governor was soon after dismissed from office. [9]
The new governor, Sulayman Pasha al-Azm, was tasked with carrying out the imperial order to eliminate Zahir. [9] Sulayman Pasha received more artillery pieces and demolition experts and equipment from Constantinople. He called on his subordinate governors, the sanjakbeys of Nablus, Jerusalem, and Gaza, as well as Bedouin tribes, to mobilize troops for the campaign. [11] [lower-alpha 1] The governor of Sidon was also ordered to support the campaign. While the imperial orders urged Sulayman Pasha to eliminate Zahir and destroy his fortifications, he also had strict instructions not to infringe on Sidon's authority by harming the inhabitants or damaging the local economy, and to conclude the operation before the departure of the Hajj caravan. [13]
A contemporary Jewish source indicates that Sulayman Pasha attempted to launch a surprise assault against Zahir by feigning his mobilization of troops in Palestine as part of the dawra to finance the Hajj caravan. [14] The Jewish community of Damascus warned the Jews of Tiberias of Sulayman Pasha's actual intention, and they in turn alerted Zahir, who was operating in the Safed area at the time, and elected to remain and support him. [15] Sulayman Pasha launched the campaign from Damascus on 3 September. [16]
The siege of Tiberias lasted about ninety days. [16] During its course, Zahir proclaimed his innocence of the charges laid against him and his loyalty to the sultan, but negotiations with the governor were futile. [15] Zahir's men made several sorties against the government coalition. He was also able to secure a steady supply of provisions and weapons into Tiberias. [16] Sa'd and 300 of his horsemen launched attacks from Deir Hanna on the besiegers. [17] Sulayman Pasha was unable to breach the fortifications and had to lift the siege to lead the Hajj caravan, [15] in December 1742. [16]
Zahir used the withdrawal as a respite to strengthen his fortifications in Tiberias, as well as the smaller forts of the Banu Zaydan, particularly Shefa-Amr in the western Lower Galilee. [16] He lodged appeals to Constantinople indirectly through the French merchants of Acre to lobby the French ambassador in the capital. He also had the Tiberian Jews lobby their Damascene coreligionists and their Jewish contacts in Constantinople to establish an additional line of communication with the imperial authorities. All of these efforts to influence the government in Zahir's favor failed. [15]
Soon after his return from Mecca in April 1743, [18] Sulayman Pasha renewed the campaign on Constantinople's orders. He was further reinforced by the governor of Tripoli Eyalet and timar (fief)-holders and other military chiefs from the Damascus Eyalet, along with more military experts and equipments, shipped by the imperial government to Haifa. [19] Sulayman Pasha departed Damascus in July. Instead of focusing on Tiberias alone, this time he first attempted to move against Deir Hanna, probably to sever Tiberias's links to the countryside and prevent supplies from reaching the town. [18]
Sulayman Pasha died suddenly during the campaign, while in the village of Lubya, a short distance west of Tiberias, in August. Upon hearing the news, Zahir dispatched his forces against the government troops, who had been left in disarray following Sulayman Pasha's death. Zahir's men plundered the opposing camp, carrying away weapons, supplies, and money. [18]
Sulayman Pasha's successor, his nephew As'ad Pasha al-Azm, relented from further action against Zahir. [20] Ibn al-Falaqinsi, the defterdar (treasurer) of As'ad Pasha, formally made peace with Zahir in the governor's name in 1743. Zahir then sent As'ad Pasha and Ibn al-Falaqinsi expensive gifts. [21] The following fourteen years were characterized by peace between Zahir and Damascus, partly because As'ad Pasha was dissuaded by his uncle's unsuccessful experience and preoccupied with domestic affairs. [22] With the threat to his eastern flank neutralized, Zahir resumed focus on capturing the port of Acre, which he occupied in 1744. By 1750, Acre became his new headquarters, [23] [24] while he entrusted control of Tiberias to his son Salibi. [25]
Zahir al-Umar al-Zaydani, alternatively spelled Daher al-Omar or Dahir al-Umar, was an Arab ruler of northern Palestine in the mid-18th century, while the region was part of the Ottoman Empire. For much of his reign, starting in the 1730s, his domain mainly consisted of the Galilee, with successive headquarters in Tiberias, Deir Hanna and finally Acre, in 1750. He fortified Acre, and the city became the center of the cotton trade between Palestine and Europe. In the mid-1760s, he reestablished the port town of Haifa nearby.
The Eyalet of Sidon was an eyalet of the Ottoman Empire. In the 19th century, the eyalet extended from the border with Egypt to the Bay of Kisrawan, including parts of modern Israel and Lebanon.
Ahmed Pasha al-Jazzar born Ahmed Pervan(Arabic: أحمد باشا الجزّار, c. 1720–30s – 7 May 1804) was the Acre-based Ottoman governor of Sidon Eyalet from 1776 until his death in 1804 and the simultaneous governor of Damascus Eyalet in 1785–1786, 1790–1795, 1798–1799, and 1803–1804. Having left his native Bosnia as a youth, he began a military career in Egypt in the service of mamluk officials, eventually becoming a chief enforcer and assassin for Ali Bey al-Kabir, Egypt's practical ruler. He gained the epithet of al-Jazzar for his deadly ambush on a group of Bedouin tribesmen in retaliation for the death of his first master in a Bedouin raid. Al-Jazzar fell out with Ali Bey in 1768 after refusing to take part in the assassination of another of his former masters. He ultimately fled to Syria, where he was tasked by the Ottomans with defending Beirut from a joint assault by the Russian Navy and Zahir al-Umar, the Acre-based ruler of northern Palestine. He eventually surrendered and entered Zahir's service before defecting from him and fleeing with stolen tax money.
As'ad Pasha al-Azm was the governor of Damascus under Ottoman rule from 1743 to his deposition in 1757. He was responsible for the construction of several architectural works in the city and other places in Syria.
Sulayman Pasha al-Azm was the governor of Sidon Eyalet (1727–33), Damascus Eyalet, and Egypt Eyalet (1739–40) under the Ottoman Empire. He belonged to the prominent Al-Azm family and was the uncle of As'ad Pasha al-Azm, who succeeded him as governor of Damascus, and Sa'deddin Pasha al-Azm, who also served as governor of Egypt.
Al-Azm family is a prominent Damascene family. Their political influence in Ottoman Syria began in the 18th century when members of the family administered Maarrat al-Nu'man and Hama. A scion of the family, Ismail Pasha al-Azm, was appointed wāli of Damascus Eyalet in 1725. Between 1725 and 1783, members of the family, including As'ad Pasha al-Azm, held power in Damascus for 47 years, in addition to periodical appointments in Sidon Eyalet, Tripoli Eyalet, Hama, Aleppo Eyalet, and Egypt Eyalet. The family's influence declined in the 19th century, failing to establish a true dynasty.
Abdullah Pasha al-Azm was an Ottoman statesman who served as the governor of the Damascus Eyalet, Aleppo Eyalet (1794), Egypt Eyalet (1798), Adana Eyalet, and Rakka Eyalet (1809), before retiring to Hama in the 1810s. He was a member of the prominent political family, Al-Azm.
Uthman Pasha al-Kurji, was the Ottoman governor (wali) of Damascus Eyalet between 1760 and 1771.
Muhammad Pasha al-Azm was the Ottoman governor of Sidon Eyalet (1763–1770) and Damascus Eyalet. He was a member of the prominent al-Azm family, the son of a former governor As'ad Pasha al-Azm.
Amir al-hajj was the position and title given to the commander of the annual Hajj pilgrim caravan by successive Muslim empires, from the 7th century until the 20th century. Since the Abbasid period, there were two main caravans, one departing from Damascus and the other from Cairo. Each of the two annual caravans was assigned an amir al-hajj whose main duties were securing funds and provisions for the caravan, and protecting it along the desert route to the Muslim holy cities of Mecca and Medina in the Hejaz.
Al-Zayadina were an Arab clan based in the Galilee. They were best known after one of their sheikhs (chiefs) Zahir al-Umar, who, through his tax farms, economic monopolies, popular support, and military strength ruled a semi-autonomous sheikhdom in northern Palestine and adjacent regions in the 18th century.
Husayn Pasha ibn Makki served as the Ottoman wali of Damascus (1757) and Marash (1762), and the sanjak-bey of his native Gaza (1763–1765).
In the Battle of Lake Huleh on 2 September 1771, the rebel forces of Zahir al-Umar and Nasif al-Nassar routed the army of Uthman Pasha al-Kurji, the Ottoman governor of Damascus, at Lake Huleh in the eastern Galilee. Most of Uthman Pasha's 10,000-strong army drowned in the Jordan River as they attempted to flee Zahir's forces commanded by his son Ali al-Zahir. According to historian William Harris, the battle has been "mythologized in local historiography and poetry". Nonetheless, no official account of the battle by the Ottomans was recorded.
Sulayman Pasha al-Adil was the Ottoman governor of Sidon Eyalet between 1805 and 1819, ruling from his Acre headquarters. He also simultaneously served as governor of Damascus Eyalet between 1810 and 1812. He was a mamluk of his predecessor, Jazzar Pasha. His rule was associated with decentralization, a reduction of Acre's military, and limits to his predecessors' cotton monopoly. Moreover, he oversaw a policy of non-interference with his deputy governors, such as Muhammad Abu-Nabbut and Mustafa Agha Barbar, and diplomacy with the autonomous sheikhs of the various Levantine regions where he held authority, including Emir Bashir Shihab II and Musa Bey Tuqan. He exercised control over his domain largely through depending on the loyalty of his deputies, who also had been mamluks of Jazzar. In effect, Sulayman Pasha presided over the world's last functioning mamluk system.
The 1757 Hajj caravan raid was the plunder and massacre of the Hajj caravan of 1757 on its return to Damascus from Mecca by Bedouin tribesmen. The caravan was under the protection of an Ottoman force led by the Wali of Damascus, Husayn Pasha, and his deputy Musa Pasha, while the Bedouin were led by Qa'dan al-Fayez of the Bani Sakher tribe. An estimated 20,000 pilgrims were either killed or died of hunger or thirst as a result of the raid.
Safed Sanjak was a sanjak (district) of Damascus Eyalet in 1517–1660, after which it became part of the Sidon Eyalet. The sanjak was centered in Safed and spanned the Galilee, Jabal Amil and the coastal cities of Acre and Tyre. The city of Safed was made up of Muslim and Jewish townspeople, while the rest of the sanjak was populated by Sunni Muslims, Jewish peasants, Bedouin tribesmen, Shia Muslims/Mitwali, and Druze peasants.
Ismail Pasha al-Azm was an Ottoman statesman who served as the governor of Damascus and amir al-hajj in 1725–1730. Prior to this post he served as the agha of Ma'arrat al-Nu'man and steadily moved up the ranks to become the governor of the districts of Ma'arrat al-Nu'man, Hama and Homs in 1719 and then governor of Tripoli in 1721 before being assigned to the Damascus governorship.
Turabay ibn Qaraja was the chieftain of the Banu Haritha tribesmen in northern Palestine and an Ottoman governor and tax farmer in the Marj Ibn Amer plain. His career began under the Mamluks in the late 15th century and continued under the Ottomans who kept him in his post as commander of the roads connecting Damascus with Cairo and Jerusalem in 1516 and soon after appointed him governor of Safad. By 1538, he had been granted tax farms in Marj Ibn Amer, Qaqun and in the Ajlun region east of the Jordan River. Turabay's descendants, the Turabay dynasty, continued to hold influence in Marj Ibn Amer as the hereditary governors of Lajjun until 1677.
The Turabay dynasty was a family of Bedouin emirs in northern Palestine who served as the multazims and sanjak-beys of Lajjun Sanjak during Ottoman rule in the 16th–17th centuries. The sanjak (district) spanned the towns of Lajjun, Jenin and Haifa and the surrounding countryside. The progenitors of the family had served as chiefs of Marj Bani Amir under the Mamluks in the late 15th century.
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