A signaculum is a general Latin term for a seal or sign produced by a stamp or signet ring, [1] used in modern scholarship in particular reference to Roman lead pipe inscriptions, brick stamps, bread stamps, [2] and the lead "dog tag" of Roman soldiers.
The signaculum of the Roman soldier was carried in a leather pouch suspended around the neck. The tag is thought to have had personal information for the purpose identifying the dead, in the same way a modern dog tag does, with a seal or stamp to authenticate it.
Although the origins of exactly when or why the Roman army decided to use the signaculum for their soldiers are not clear, there are, regardless, references to its use in some historical documents, which indicate its composition (lead), as well as the fact that it is given after it is determined a man is fit to serve the legion. In a document from 295, Maximilian of Tebessa, an early Christian martyr, is being recruited as an officer in the Roman army against his wishes:
When he was being got ready, Maximilianus replied: 'I cannot serve as a soldier. I cannot do evil. I am a Christian.' Dio the proconsul replied, 'Let him be measured.' When he had been measured, his height was read out by an equerry, 'He is five feet, ten inches.' Dio said to the equerry, 'Give him the signaculum.' Maximilianus resisted and replied, 'I do not do so. I cannot serve as a soldier. I am a Christian. I do not accept the signaculum of the secular world, and if you give me the signaculum, I will break it, because it has no validity. I cannot carry a piece of lead around my neck after the sign of my Lord. 'Dio said,'Remove his name.' [3]
There is some evidence that by the time of the late Roman army, it became common practice to instead give soldiers who were found fit for service in the legion an indelible Soldier's Mark, possibly to discourage desertion by making any former or deserting soldiers clearly discernible.
In De Re Militari (AD 390), one of the Roman military writer Vegetius Renatus states that after the initial selection process, a recruit is then placed through a four-month testing period to ensure his physical capability.
many, though promising enough in appearance, are found very unfit upon trial. These are to be rejected and replaced by better men; for it is not numbers, but bravery which carries the day. After their examination, the recruits should then receive the military mark, and be taught the use of their arms by constant and daily exercise. [4]
A neck ring with a tag served a similar purpose in identifying a fugitive slave. The ring was riveted so that it couldn't readily be removed. The tag contained information such as the owner's name, status, and occupation, and the "address" to which the slave should be returned. [5]
Items made from terra cotta, lead, and other impressionable materials were often stamped with a maker's mark during manufacture.
It is possible that signacula that were carried by domestic workers were used as stamps to record usage of tools, and debts from one to another. [6]
Dog tag is an informal but common term for a specific type of identification tag worn by military personnel. The tags' primary use is for the identification of casualties; they have information about the individual written on them, including identification and essential basic medical information such as blood type and history of inoculations. They often indicate a religious preference as well.
The Roman legion, the largest military unit of the Roman army, comprised 4,200 infantry and 300 equites (cavalry) in the period of the Roman Republic and 5,600 infantry and 200 auxilia in the period of the Roman Empire.
Lucius Septimius Severus was a Roman politician who served as emperor from 193 to 211. He was born in Leptis Magna in the Roman province of Africa. As a young man he advanced through the customary succession of offices under the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Severus seized power after the death of the emperor Pertinax in 193 during the Year of the Five Emperors.
Titus Caesar Vespasianus was Roman emperor from 79 to 81. A member of the Flavian dynasty, Titus succeeded his father Vespasian upon his death.
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A cohort was a standard tactical military unit of a Roman legion. Although the standard size changed with time and situation, it was generally composed of 480 soldiers. A cohort is considered to be the equivalent of a modern military battalion. The cohort replaced the maniple. From the late second century BC and until the middle of the third century AD, ten cohorts made up a legion. Cohorts were named "first cohort", "second cohort", etc. The first cohort consisted of experienced legionaries, while the legionaries in the tenth cohort were less experienced.
The Roman army was the armed forces deployed by the Romans throughout the duration of Ancient Rome, from the Roman Kingdom to the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, and its medieval continuation, the Eastern Roman Empire. It is thus a term that may span approximately 2,205 years, during which the Roman armed forces underwent numerous permutations in size, composition, organisation, equipment and tactics, while conserving a core of lasting traditions.
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The production of these kinds of helmets of Italic tradition decreased in quality because of the demands of equipping huge armies, especially during civil wars...The bad quality of these helmets is recorded by the sources describing how sometimes they were covered by wicker protections, like those of Pompeius' soldiers during the siege of Dyrrachium in 48 BC, which were seriously damaged by the missiles of Caesar's slingers and archers.
It would appear that armour quality suffered at times when mass production methods were being used to meet the increased demand which was very high the reduced size cuirasses would also have been quicker and cheaper to produce, which may have been a deciding factor at times of financial crisis, or where large bodies of men were required to be mobilized at short notice, possibly reflected in the poor-quality, mass produced iron helmets of Imperial Italic type C, as found, for example, in the River Po at Cremona, associated with the Civil Wars of AD 69 AD; Russell Robinson, 1975, 67
Up until then, the quality of helmets had been fairly consistent and the bowls well decorated and finished. However, after the Marian Reforms, with their resultant influx of the poorest citizens into the army, there must inevitably have been a massive demand for cheaper equipment, a situation which can only have been exacerbated by the Civil Wars...
Maximilian of Tebessa, also known as Maximilian of Numidia, was a Christian saint and martyr, whose feast day is observed on 12 March. Born in AD 274, the son of Fabius Victor, an official connected to the Roman army, Maximilian was obliged to enlist at the age of 21. He is noted as the earliest recorded conscientious objector, although it is believed that other Christians at the time also refused military service and were executed.
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