Sohrai and Khovar are traditional methods of mural wall painting practiced predominantly by tribal communities in the Hazaribagh district of Jharkhand, India, and adjacent regions within the state and neighboring areas of Bihar and West Bengal.[1][2] The two interconnected art forms commemorate distinct cultural occasions: Sohrai paintings celebrate the autumn harvest season and the commencement of livestock rearing, while Khovar paintings mark matrimonial ceremonies within indigenous tribal communities. Both traditions are characterized by matriarchal knowledge transmission, with artistic skills passing exclusively from mothers to daughters across generations.[1][2] The material culture reflects deep ecological knowledge, employing exclusively natural pigments and earth-based substrates sourced from local geological formations and environmental contexts.
The art forms were officially recognized with Geographical Indication (GI) status from the Government of India in 2020, acknowledging their distinctiveness and cultural significance as products originating from a specific geographical region.[3] This recognition has facilitated international exposure through museum exhibitions and commercial applications on contemporary substrates including cloth, paper, and commercial textiles, generating economic opportunities for practitioners and enhancing global awareness of these traditions.
History and archaeological origins
Archaeological evidence and ethnographic research establish that Sohrai and Khovar traditions extend into deep antiquity, with origins traceable to the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods, spanning approximately 20,000 to 5,000 BCE, encompassing the late Stone Age through the Chalcolithic era.[4][5] Rock shelters discovered in the Barkagaon region of Hazaribagh, particularly at the Isko rock shelter site, contain painted compositions exhibiting striking thematic and compositional parallels to contemporary tribal wall murals, including comparable representations of fauna, botanical elements, and geometric configurations.[2][4] The Isko cave rock art was formally designated a national monument by the Archaeological Survey of India in April 2023, officially acknowledging its archaeological and cultural significance.[1]
The continuity between prehistoric rock art and living tribal artistic traditions remained largely unknown to the broader academic and international community until the 1990s. Environmental activist, archaeologist, and Padma Shri recipient Bulu Imam emerged as the pivotal figure in establishing this crucial connection between prehistoric artistic practice and contemporary tribal expression. In 1991, following information provided by Father Tony Herbert, an Australian Jesuit priest operating an educational facility in the Barkagaon Valley, Imam identified and documented the first significant rock art site at Isco.[5][6] Subsequent systematic archaeological surveys conducted by Imam identified more than a dozen additional prehistoric rock art sites within the North Karanpura Valley region, all subsequently acknowledged by the Archaeological Survey of India.[5][6] By 1993, Imam had synthesized these archaeological findings with ethnographic observation of contemporary tribal mural traditions, establishing that indigenous Adivasi women continued perpetuating artistic motifs, compositional methodologies, and technical practices originating in prehistoric antiquity.[5][6] This scholarly contribution transformed academic and cultural perceptions of these art forms, elevating them from merely contemporary folk practices to living repositories of prehistoric cultural and technical knowledge.
Terminology and nomenclature
The term "Sohrai" derives from the Mundari language, specifically from the compound word combining Soh or Soro, which translates to "to drive with force" or "to lash with a stick," and Rai, meaning "stick" or "rod."[1][4][7] This nomenclature references the practice of herding livestock and commencing the cattle-rearing season following the autumn harvest, and the festival's association with driving cattle through village pathways in ceremonial procession.
"Khovar" originates from two etymological components: kho, denoting a residential structure, cave, or room, and var, referring to the bridegroom or marital couple.[1][2][7] Khovar paintings are executed exclusively within bridal chambers, where newly married couples traditionally spend their initial night together, functioning as ceremonial blessings invoking fertility, auspiciousness, and divine protection upon the matrimonial union. The art form is integral to marital rituals and is executed by the bride's mother and village women as a collective blessing.
Geographic distribution and practitioner communities
The strongest continuity of Sohrai and Khovar painting traditions occurs within Hazaribagh district in Jharkhand state, specifically within the Barkagaon Block and adjacent villages, though the practices also appear with significant prevalence in adjacent regions including Giridih, Dumka, Khunti, Gumla, and Ranchi districts in Jharkhand, as well as neighboring areas of Bihar and West Bengal.[1][2][8] Geographic distribution studies using GIS mapping reveal concentrations of practice in regions with abundant natural resources and high tribal population densities, particularly in areas where Scheduled Tribe populations exceed 35% of total inhabitants.[8]
These art forms are predominantly practiced by multiple tribal and Scheduled Caste communities, including the Santhal (Santal), Munda, Oraon, Kurmi, Ho, Agaria, Prajapati, Ghatwal, and Ganju peoples.[1][2][4] Ethnographic research identifies distinct stylistic variations associated with different ethnic communities; for example, Kurmi women from villages such as Bhelwara produce intricate compositions featuring Kamlaban (Tree of Life) motifs, while Ganju community members create distinctive glyptic or engraved styles, and Agaria artisans employ stencil techniques depicting Shiva in anthropomorphic forms.
The traditions demonstrate distinctly matriarchal characteristics in both artistic practice and knowledge transmission. Skills and artistic methodology transfer exclusively from mothers to daughters within family units, with elder female practitioners functioning as instructors, custodians, and repositories of accumulated artistic expertise. Younger generations participate in collaborative village-wide painting sessions during seasonal festivals, facilitating intergenerational knowledge transfer within social contexts of celebration and communal participation.
Materials, pigmentation, and technical preparation
Traditional Sohrai and Khovar paintings employ exclusively natural pigments derived from local geological and environmental sources, reflecting sophisticated ecological knowledge systems and sustainable material practices.[2][4][7] The foundational preparation involves coating wall surfaces with a specialized mixture of clay soil, cow dung, rice husk, and water, which provides adequate adhesion, structural stability, and porous surface properties essential for traditional pigment application and long-term durability.[2][7]
Primary pigments and their sources
The primary pigments utilized include locally-sourced earth materials, each possessing distinct symbolic associations:
Black clay and manganese oxide (kaali mitti): Extracted from iron-rich deposits and stream beds, containing manganese oxide compounds; symbolically represents the god Shiva, concepts of eternal death, and regenerative cycles.[1][2][4]
Red ochre (geru); alternatively sourced from morhum gravel used to pave forest roads in hill tracts: Sourced from ore deposits within hilly terrain; represents ancestral bloodlines, fertility, procreative power, and agricultural abundance associated with harvest.[1][2][7][9]
White kaolin clay (dudhi maati or charak maati): Dug from local streams and lime mine deposits; represents paternal divinity, illumination, purity, and protective principles.[1][2][4]
Yellow ochre (pila maati or nagri): Derived from riverine pebbles and clay deposits; indicates auspiciousness, prosperity, and agricultural fertility.[2][7]
Tools and applicators
Tools for pigment application are historically and traditionally fashioned from natural materials including softened twigs of the Saal tree (datwan), traditionally prepared through chewing to create bristles, as well as combs fashioned from bamboo or plastic, cloth swabs, fingers, and broken pieces of combs.[2][4][9] Contemporary practice sometimes incorporates modern materials while maintaining traditional aesthetic and conceptual frameworks. Tool preparation constitutes an integral component of the artistic practice, with elder women instructing younger participants in proper techniques during seasonal preparation periods preceding festivals.
Artistic techniques and methodological approaches
Sohrai painting technique
Sohrai paintings employ a direct additive painting methodology involving sequential application of pigments to clay-plastered surfaces, executed while substrates remain partially moist or semi-desiccated.[1][2][7] The technical sequence proceeds as follows: Following initial soil-dung base coating and white clay application, practitioners apply red pigment initially, representing ancestral lineage, fertility, and procreative principles. Black pigment application follows, representing the deity Shiva, eternal death concepts, and regeneration. Final white linear elements are added, representing agricultural abundance, protective boundaries, and traditional values of chastity and fidelity.[2][4][7] This additive process creates polychromatic compositions with rich chromatic variation and dimensional complexity, executed using cloth swabs, softened twigs, and traditional brushes applied while the substrate retains moisture.
Technical variations occur among different ethnic communities. Kurmi artisans execute intricate linear compositions with fine detail work; Agaria practitioners employ stencil techniques; Ganju women create distinctive glyptic styles with more pronounced relief and sculptural quality.[9]
Khovar painting technique: sgraffito method
Khovar paintings employ a subtractive technique analogous to sgraffito processes utilized in decorative ceramics and historical pottery traditions, representing a sophisticated technical methodology.[1][2][7] The method proceeds through sequential stages:
1. A base layer of black earth-derived clay (containing manganese oxide) is applied to prepared wall surfaces and permitted to achieve complete desiccation.
2. Subsequently, a layer of white kaolin is applied to the dried black surface while remaining in a partially moist state.
3. While this white clay retains moisture, the artist employs combs, fingernails, or other pointed implements to incise or scrape patterns into the white layer, thereby revealing the contrasting black substrate beneath.[1][2][7]
This technique produces monochromatic compositions characterized by striking visual contrast between incised linear patterns and the underlying dark surface. The precision and complexity of incised patterns vary considerably based on artist skill and community traditions, with some compositions featuring densely packed geometric patterns while others employ more sparse, bold linear configurations.[9]
Symbolism, iconography, and thematic content
Sohrai symbolism and conceptual framework
Sohrai paintings are dedicated to Pashupati, the Vedic deity conceptualized as the lord, protector, and master of all animals and living creatures, reflecting tribal cosmologies that emphasize harmonious relationships between human communities and the animal kingdom.[1][2][4] The artistic repertoire emphasizes representations of domestic and wild fauna, reflecting both pastoral economy and ecological relationships characteristic of forest-dwelling communities. Red lines constitute the foundational element, representing ancestral bloodlines and fertility associated with procreation and abundance. Black lines signify eternal death, regeneration cycles, or the divine principle of Shiva. Outer encompassing lines embody traditional values including protection, fidelity, chastity, and social cohesion.[2][4][7] The sequential application of colors carries explicit symbolic significance within tribal cosmological frameworks.
Khovar symbolism and cosmological interpretation
Khovar paintings venerate the feminine divine principle, invoking protective and generative forces upon marital unions and blessing newlywed couples.[1][2][7] The symbolism interprets wall surfaces as cosmological and geographical representations: the black earth base represents mother earth, the cosmic womb from which all life emerges, and the generative principle; the white kaolin layer represents paternal divinity, procreative illumination, and protective masculine principle. The incision of white clay to reveal black substrate symbolizes the emergence of the mother goddess from inert earth, embodying principles of creative generation, fecundity, and the union of masculine and feminine principles intrinsic to tribal spiritual worldviews.[2][4] This cosmological interpretation integrates fertility symbolism with protective invocation, creating artistic expressions of blessing and benediction.
Pictorial motifs and thematic repertoire
Both traditions employ a consistent and sophisticated visual vocabulary encompassing diverse representational elements:
Fauna representations: Peacocks constitute particularly significant motifs, with pregnant peacock representations considered exceptionally auspicious for nuptial chambers.[1][2][4] Additional fauna depicted include domestic ungulates—cattle, buffalo, oxen, and goats—representing economic prosperity, security, and successful domestication; wild animals including tigers, deer, elephants, rhinoceroses, nilgai, crocodiles, snakes, and wild boar reflecting forest-dwelling communities' ecological relationships and spiritual associations.
Avian subjects: Various bird species are depicted, particularly in maternal relationships with offspring, emphasizing the matriarchal social organization intrinsic to these communities and celebrating reproductive capacity and nurturing roles.[2][4][7]
Botanical elements: Flowering plants, trees, and lotus motifs appear regularly, with Kamlaban (Forest of Lotuses) and Kamla Baan compositions invoking fertility, cosmic order, and the Tree of Life (Kamlaban) as central organizing symbol representing connection between celestial and terrestrial realms.[2][4][9]
Anthropomorphic representations: Shiva depicted in anthropomorphic forms as Pashupati (Lord of Animals), sometimes rendered as a figure with animal characteristics or in gestural poses suggesting blessing or divine protection.[1][2][9]
Geometric and abstract patterns: Concentric circles, linear frameworks, checkerboard patterns, and abstract configurations serve compositional functions, establish protective boundaries, and create visual rhythm and balance within compositions.[2][4][7]
The motif repertoire demonstrates striking parallels with Indus Valley seals, prehistoric pottery decoration traditions from Iran and Mesopotamia, and contemporaneous tribal art forms from other regions, suggesting potential trans-cultural diffusion of symbolic systems or parallel development of universal symbolic expressions across prehistoric societies.
Seasonal festivals, ritual context, and ceremonial practice
Sohrai festival and seasonal celebration
The Sohrai festival occurs annually on the new moon phase (Amavasya) of the Hindu month of Kartik, typically corresponding to October or November in the Gregorian calendar.[2][4][7][10] Among certain communities, particularly the Santhal residing in Santal Parganas and other regions, the festival observance shifts to January, specifically between January 10-15, coinciding with Poush Sankranti harvest of Rabi crops, demonstrating regional variations in observance timing.[4][9]
The festival commemorates successful harvests and expresses collective gratitude toward livestock resources, with cattle receiving ritual veneration, ceremonial anointing of horns with vermilion oil, special feeding, and ceremonial driving through village pathways.[2][4][7] The five-day Sohrai celebration encompasses specific ritual phases, each characterized by distinct artistic and devotional activities.[10] On Dakay Din (the second day), women execute elaborate wall and floor patterns (alpana) using rice gruel, establishing the visual framework for subsequent painted compositions and creating auspicious welcome for cattle returning to the household.[9][10] Following this foundation, the primary Sohrai paintings are executed on mud walls and interior surfaces.[9]
Sohrai paintings remain visible throughout the festival period and post-harvest season, subsequently allowed to deteriorate through natural weathering processes, embodying principles of impermanence, cyclical renewal, and cosmological regeneration intrinsic to Hindu and tribal cosmological frameworks.[2][4][7] The paintings' dissolution symbolizes the completion of seasonal agricultural cycles and prepares the landscape for the coming year's renewal.
Khovar and matrimonial ceremonial context
Khovar paintings are executed within days preceding matrimonial ceremonies, specifically within bridal chambers where wedding preparation and ceremonies occur.[1][2][7] The tradition involves elaborate collective participation: multiple women from village communities collaborate in the creation process, with elder women instructing younger participants in traditional designs, symbolic meanings, and technical execution. These collaborative sessions strengthen community bonds, celebrate the bride's transition to marital status, and ensure intergenerational knowledge transmission within social contexts of celebration and communal blessing.[1][2]
The completed Khovar paintings remain visible throughout wedding festivities and ceremonial celebrations spanning multiple days, subsequently deteriorating through weathering and environmental exposure. The paintings' dissolution symbolically marks the bride's transition into her marital household status, the completion of initial marital bonding ceremonies, and the couple's subsequent integration into their extended household. The ephemeral nature of both Sohrai and Khovar paintings reflects Buddhist and Hindu philosophical principles regarding impermanence (anicca), ephemerality as spiritual principle, and acceptance of natural cycles of creation and dissolution.
Contemporary institutional preservation and scholarly recognition
Preservation initiatives and museum documentation
Environmental activist, archaeologist, and Padma Shri recipient Bulu Imam established the Sanskriti Museum & Art Gallery in Hazaribagh in 1992, creating comprehensive institutional space for artifact preservation, archaeological specimen exhibition, and display of contemporary Sohrai and Khovar paintings alongside prehistoric rock art specimens.[5][6] This institutional framework has enabled systematic documentation of artistic practices, preservation of archival materials, and creation of permanent exhibition space accessible to scholarly researchers and international visitors.[5][6][9]
Simultaneously, Imam founded the Tribal Women Artists Cooperative (TWAC) in 1993 to provide institutional support, market access, and economic opportunities for women practitioners.[2][8][11] The cooperative initially recruited thirty women artists and subsequently expanded this network to encompass over 5,000 participating practitioners across multiple decades, making it one of India's largest women-centered craft cooperatives.[6][11] Through these institutional frameworks, participating artisans have exhibited their works in numerous international venues, gaining recognition from global audiences and art institutions including museums in Australia, Europe, the United Kingdom, and North America.[2][6][9]
Geographical Indication recognition and legal protection
In 2020, Sohrai–Khovar Painting received official Geographical Indication (GI) status from the Government of India, administered through the Geographical Indications Registry.[2][3][8] This designation, operative for a ten-year period subject to renewal, conveys "an assurance of quality and distinctiveness which is essentially attributable to the fact of its origin in that defined geographical locality, region or country."[3] The GI classification provides comprehensive legal protection against unauthorized commercial exploitation, misappropriation, and counterfeiting of the art tradition and its distinctive aesthetic and cultural characteristics. This recognition represents significant institutional validation of tribal intellectual property rights and cultural heritage protection.[3][8]
The GI status has enhanced market valuation of authentic products, facilitated regional promotion through government marketing initiatives, and created frameworks for distinguishing genuine artisan-produced works from commercial imitations and mass-produced substitute products.[3][8]
Government initiatives and skill development programs
The Jharkhand state government has undertaken significant initiatives to promote Sohrai and Khovar art through skill development programs and commercial applications. Government buildings, including the chief minister's office, railway stations, airports, and official residences throughout the state capital have been decorated with Sohrai paintings, providing direct employment opportunities for trained artisans.[2][8] The government has supported the USTTAD (Upgrading the Skills & Training in Traditional Arts/Crafts for Development) scheme, which facilitates skill development in these traditional art forms, providing training stipends and market linkages for practitioners.[8]
Recognition initiatives have included national awards and international exhibition opportunities, elevating the status of these traditions within contemporary Indian cultural discourse and providing visibility to participating artisans.[2][4]
Contemporary adaptations and economic transformation
Contemporary Sohrai and Khovar practice has expanded significantly beyond traditional mud wall contexts to encompass adaptations on diverse contemporary substrates including paper, canvas, cloth, and commercial textiles, facilitating broader commercial distribution and urban market accessibility.[1][2][7][8] These adaptations have enabled participating women artisans to generate consistent, year-round income through systematic production arrangements and institutional commercial relationships not previously available within traditional seasonal festival contexts, which historically provided income opportunities only during biannual festivals.[2][8][11]
Non-governmental organizations including Virasat Trust (established 2008) and Maati Ghar have systematized the integration of traditional motifs into contemporary textile compositions through direct painting, appliqué, and embroidery techniques.[2][8] These adaptations have successfully introduced Sohrai and Khovar aesthetic vocabularies into urban consumer markets including home décor products (table runners, cushion covers, wall panels), fashion textiles, and architectural ornamentation.[2][8]
Economic impact studies document that individual women artisans participating in cooperative marketing arrangements receive commissions for large-scale orders, with textile pieces commanding market prices ranging from 150 Indian Rupees to several thousand rupees depending on complexity, size, and material composition.[2][8][11] Contemporary artisans have reported receiving orders encompassing quantities such as 1,000 decorated towels, generation of substantial annual income compared to previous household income sources, and establishment of independent economic agency previously unavailable within rural agricultural economies.[2][8]
Linked embroidery traditions including Ledra or Ladara embroidery (sewn quilts incorporating Sohrai motifs created from cloth scraps) have similarly expanded commercial applications, with participating women establishing independent income streams and market access through cooperatives and direct sales arrangements.[9]
Social and economic empowerment dimensions
The commercialization and institutional support of Sohrai and Khovar traditions has generated significant social and economic empowerment outcomes for women artisans, particularly those from Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe backgrounds historically subject to economic marginalization.[8][11] Research documenting economic impact indicates that over 70% of women participants in TWAC and related cooperatives report increased household income, improved access to education for children, enhanced decision-making authority within households, and establishment of savings accounts and financial autonomy previously unavailable.[8][11]
The cooperative structure has enabled collective bargaining for raw materials, access to credit and seed funding, participation in national and international exhibitions, and connection to urban market consumers, generating economic multiplier effects throughout participating communities.[8][11]
Contemporary challenges and sustainability concerns
Despite contemporary recognition, commercial development opportunities, and institutional preservation initiatives, these art traditions face multiple sustainability challenges and threats to continued practice:
Architectural transformation and material substrate loss
The transition from traditional mud and dung construction to modern durable wall materials (plastered brick, concrete, and cement) has substantially reduced the quantity of suitable mural surfaces, as contemporary plastered and brick walls lack the porous properties requisite for traditional pigment application, adhesion, and visual integration.[2][8][10][11] This architectural transformation represents one of the most significant threats to seasonal festival practice, as reduced suitable wall surfaces diminish opportunities for traditional ceremonial painting within household contexts.[2][8]
Educational transmission and generational discontinuity
Educational transmission of these practices has become irregular as younger generations pursue alternative employment opportunities, urban migration patterns, formal education paths, and economic diversification away from traditional craft practice.[8][10][11] Research documents declining participation among women under age 30 in traditional seasonal painting activities, particularly in regions experiencing rapid urbanization and infrastructure development.[8]
Environmental degradation and raw material scarcity
Environmental degradation and climate change have compromised access to specific natural pigment sources, with deforestation and soil degradation reducing availability of traditional ochre deposits, clay sources, and other raw materials essential to traditional practice.[8][10][11] Reduced forest cover has diminished access to Saal tree twigs (datwan) traditionally used for brush preparation, and stream bed degradation has reduced availability of white kaolin deposits.[8]
Tension between commercialization and cultural authenticity
The commodification of these traditions, while economically beneficial and facilitating sustainability, has generated concerns regarding artistic authenticity and the preservation of traditional knowledge in its original ritual and ceremonial context.[2][10] Some practitioners have adopted modern acrylic and commercial pigments for expanded commercial applications, fundamentally altering the aesthetic, environmental impact, and material character of the art form compared to traditional practice employing exclusively natural pigments.[10]
The transition from ephemeral festival painting to permanent commercial textile products represents philosophical tensions between traditional emphasis on impermanence and ritual significance versus contemporary desires for durable, marketable commodities.[10]
International exhibitions and cultural impact
The international trajectory of Sohrai and Khovar art gained significant momentum through exhibitions organized by INTACH (Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage) beginning in 1995, with subsequent expanded exhibitions managed through institutional partnerships and museum programming. These exhibitions have introduced these traditions to diverse international audiences, with live demonstrations by women artists conducted in international gallery settings, enabling direct engagement between practitioners and global audiences.[2][6][9] The aesthetic and cultural significance of these traditions has attracted scholarly attention from anthropologists, folklorists, and art historians, generating substantial academic documentation, theoretical analysis, and international publication.[1][2][4]
Contemporary exhibitions including those at the Sanskriti Museum and partnerships with international institutions have positioned Sohrai and Khovar within global discourse on indigenous art, cultural heritage preservation, and intellectual property rights of tribal communities.[6][9]
[1] Dr. Shanta Rani Kerketta. "Sohrai Art - The Tribal Art Form of Jharkhand." International Journal Of Novel Research And Development, Vol. 9, Issue 10, October 2024.
[2] Dr. Indrani Roy. "Sohrai And Khovar Painting: A Prospective Of Skill Development And Entrepreneurship Among Tribal Artists Of Jharkhand." International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews, Vol. 10, Issue 1, February 2023.
[3] Government of India Geographical Indications Registry. Sohrai-Khovar Painting GI Certificate. 2020.
[4] Shruti Khalkho and Dr. Arpana Premi Lina Oraon. "Sohrai and Khovar: A Geographical Study of Jharkhand." International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research, Vol. 6, Issue 6, November-December 2024.
[5] Bulu Imam. "The Painted Houses of Hazaribagh: Archaeological Evidence and Living Traditions." 2017.
[8] Suchi Gaur. "Crafting a Better Future: How Women's Handicrafts Promote Economic Growth and Gender Equality." MeMeraki Blog, 2024.
[9] Banglanatak Project. "Sohrai - The Wall Art Of Jharkhand." Visual documentation and ethnographic study. Google Arts & Culture. 2024.
[10] Dr. Shanta Rani Kerketta. "Challenges for Adivasi Women in Sustaining Art and Craft Heritage in Contemporary Jharkhand." The Academic Journal, Vol. 85, 2025.
[11] Office of the Development Commissioner (Handicrafts), Government of India. "Sohrai–Khovar Painting." Handicrafts Portal Documentation. https://handicrafts.nic.in/
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