Transnational efforts to prevent human trafficking

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Transnational efforts to prevent human trafficking are being made to prevent human trafficking in specific countries and around the world.

Contents

Human trafficking has often had a negative connotation, and has been viewed as an unwanted activity by different countries around the world. These countries have formed organizations, laws, and educational programs geared towards the prevention of human trafficking. Having many countries involved in the prevention of human trafficking gives this subject a transnational approach. In this article, transnational will be defined as an issue that crosses international boundaries that multiple nations are experiencing and addressing at the same time. This article will focus on the transnational efforts to prevent human trafficking.

Different countries have had different approaches when attempting to prevent human trafficking. Both governmental and non-governmental organizations have been created to combat the issue at hand. Governmental agencies are groups which are funded, ran, and recognized by the government. Non-governmental organizations are formations of people who have the same interests and are run independently away from the government. Law and legislation have been enacted in a variety of countries dealing directly with the prevention of human trafficking. These laws range from making prostitution illegal or prosecuting those who are caught trafficking human beings, to protecting those people who have been trafficked. Governmental and non-governmental organizations have both published and provided educational material about human trafficking to those who wish to read it. Training manuals, textbooks, and pamphlets have been printed in many different languages in many different countries on the subject of human trafficking and its prevention.

Transnational efforts

Across the world an increasing number of humans are being trafficked. Trying to control this rapid trend many countries have formed governmental and non-governmental organizations to help combat trafficking. Laws and regulations that prevent trafficking are springing up worldwide. Groups are informing those who are unaware of the effects and consequences of human trafficking; involving the traffickers and those who are being trafficked. Laws are prosecuting those who participate in trafficking; the traffickers and sometimes those who are trafficked depending on what country you are located in. In select countries, rehabilitation and counseling is available for those who have been trafficking and wish for help. Each country has different rules, regulations and organizations involving human trafficking. Therefore, it is necessary to examine each country individually to understand their efforts to prevent human trafficking. Below is a time line for each country to show their transnational effort to prevent human trafficking.

Africa

Founded in 1987 ESAM, Enfants Solidaires d'Afrique et du Monde, is a nonprofit organization formed to "fight the abuse and neglect of children, young people, and women". Based in Benin, West Africa this charity was officially recognized on May 17, 1990. [1]

In September 1996 a nongovernmental organization in Nigeria, the Constitutional Rights Project, produced a report titled "Modernized Slavery- Child Trade in Nigeria". This reports main focus was on the trafficking of children in Nigeria; bringing attention to trafficking in the area. [2]

Around the same time, WAO Afrique, World Association for Orphans, started investigating human child trafficking as well. [2] WAO Afrique is a nongovernmental organization based in Lomé, Togo. [3]

In July 1998, UNICEF held a workshop on "trafficking in child domestic workers in particular girls of domestic service in west and central Africa." [2]

In December 2001, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) produced a plan of action against trafficking. This plan includes procedures when dealing with the traffickers and the victims of trafficking. ECOWAS has set up a fund for the victims of human trafficking. [4]

Australia

In 1994, Australia passed the Child Sex Tourism Act. This act prohibits any citizens or residents of Australia to engage in any sexual activity or intercourse with any person under the age of sixteen anywhere in the world. [5]

Brazil

Two states in Brazil, Pernambuco and Bahia, have implemented a Specialized Criminal Justice of Childhood and Youths legislation. This legislation is aimed at prosecuting and judging crimes against children and adolescents. [6]

The Brazilian criminal law code outlines the standards on the trafficking of women in chapter five articles 227, 228, and 231. In June 2000, the government created a Plan for Combating the Abuse and Sexual Exploitation of Children and Adolescents. This plan has become the national guide for sexual violence and protecting the rights of children. [7]

Cambodia

In 2007, the nongovernmental organization named ChildSafe opened a center in Phnom Penh open twenty four hours a day, seven days a week. This center invites children who are abused or at risk to be abused for support, counseling, medical assistance, and police complaints. ChildSafe also has a hot-line that is open at all times to report a child who is at risk for being trafficked. [8]

France

France prohibits trafficking for sexual exploitation through Article 225 of its penal code. [9]

The French Government provided the victims of trafficking, which cooperated with authorities in the investigation and prosecution of all those involved in trafficking, witness protection services and issued residency permits. [10]

ECPAT (End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism) France, a non-governmental organization, established in 1992 is aimed at preventing child prostitution and trafficking not only in France, but around the world. [11]

France's Respect for Human Rights Policies, section 6: Worker Rights, sub section f: Trafficking in Persons states, the laws that most Pimps and Traffickers are usually punished under, "aiding, abetting, or protecting the prostitution of another person; obtaining a profit, sharing proceeds, or receiving subsidies from someone engaged in prostitution; or employing, leading, corrupting, or pressuring someone into prostitution." [12]

Several of France's law enforcement agencies are involved combating human trafficking. In 2007, the French government increased its efforts in protecting and assisting victims of sex trafficking. The Government provided non-governmental organizations with money for protection services, which include medical care, legal counsel, shelter, and psychological counseling. [13]

Greece

Law No. 3064/2002, passed in 2002, states that trafficking for the purpose of sexual or labor exploitation is illegal. Included in this law are provisions for the trafficking victims such as shelter and legal help. [14] An additional law passed in 2005 allows a period of 30 days for the trafficked victim to decide whether to take part in the prosecution of their traffickers. If they choose to assist, the victims are able to obtain healthcare and social services. If they choose not to partake in the prosecution, they do not receive these services. [14]

In order to combat the increased number of minors being trafficked from Albania to Greece, Law No. 3625/2007 passed in 2007 creating harsher penalties for those trafficking minors. In 2008, Law No. 3692/2008 was enacted as an agreement between Albania and Greece to cooperate in regards to minors who are trafficked between the two countries. [14]

India

Founded in 2007, Odanadi Seva Trust is a community-based organization that attempts to fight human trafficking in India. This organization is based in Mysore, South India and attempts to put an end to trafficking by rescue operations, rehabilitation, and education. [15]

Serbia

Serbian legislative Article 388 explicitly defines the term "human trafficking" and makes it distinct from smuggling. This Article also places higher penalties on those found trafficking minors. [14] While Article 388 defines human trafficking, Article 390 explicitly states that trafficking and any other form of slavery is illegal in Serbia. [14]

Sri Lanka

In 1995, Sri Lanka created a special task force to study human trafficking. However, in 1997 the task force was replaced by a presidential task force. In 1998 the Child Protection Authority (CPA) was enacted. The CPA held on to all previous laws protecting the rights of children from unlawful abuse. These laws make trafficking and any other form of abuse illegal, even during war. [6]

Sweden

In Sweden, the government has created a law that "prohibits the purchase of sexual services." This law makes it illegal for men to buy prostitutes. By passing this law on January 1, 1999, Sweden was also helping to prevent the international prostitution and human trafficking. This law helped to stop trafficking in Sweden by arresting and prosecution the male purchasers not the female victims. There has been a reduction in the number of prostitutes in Sweden since 2004. Swedish citizens can be prosecuted for purchasing sexual services anywhere in the world if the country in which they did it criminalise it. [16] [17]

Thailand

Since 1956 prostitution in Thailand has been illegal.

In May 1990, ECPAT (End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism) Thailand was established by churches, women's rights organizations, and charitable services.

In 1996 the government of Thailand sanctioned the Prostitution Prevention and Suppression Act. This act allows the parents who sell their children into the sex trade to be prosecuted. The Prostitution Prevention and Suppression Act also prosecutes the individuals who are having sexual intercourse with the children involved in the sex trade.

In 1997, the Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Women and Children Act increased consequences of those who are found guilty of abducting women and children from China, Laos, Burma, or Cambodia to Thailand for slave labor or prostitution.

In 1998, the education requirement for children was pushed up from six years to nine. [6]

United Kingdom

In 1997, the Sex Offenders Act broadened certain legislation to include residents and citizens of Great Britain implicated with sex tourism. [6] The act also made it a crime to travel overseas with the intention to partake in sex tourism. The Crimestoppers hot-line is a free hot-line for British tourists to "report child abuse abroad". [18]

United States

The Thirteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution was added to the United States Constitution and ratified on December 6, 1865, making slavery and the trafficking of Humans in America illegal. [19]

In 1994, Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act was passed. Under this Act, it is illegal for a citizen of the United States to travel abroad with the intention of engaging in sex tourism. The penalties for breaching this act include a fine and/or up to ten years of imprisonment. [18]

In 1996, the United States took part in the ECPAT World Congress Against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children. [6]

In 2000, the United States passed the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act. [20]

In 2001, America also joined in the Second World Congress held in Japan. [6]

In 2004, Hawaii passed Act 82 of the House Bill 2020, making "the promotion of travel for the purpose of prostitution a felony and grounds for revoking the license of an offending travel agent." [18]

Organizations and agencies

This is an alphabetical list of the Governmental and Non-Governmental Organizations, from the countries listed above, and the things that they are doing to help prevent human trafficking. A Governmental Organization is an organization that is formed, funded, and run by the government. A Non-Governmental Organization is an organization that is run independently away from the government.

Governmental

National Child Protection Authority or the CPA was established in Sri Lanka. Their mission states: [21]

In relation to child abuse and exploitation, to create awareness and improve knowledge, undertake training and skills development, recommend legal reform and monitor law enforcement, undertake special investigations and provide legal support, strengthen the infrastructure to prevent abuse in families, communities, schools and institutions, establish a comprehensive data base including a cyber-watch, undertake relevant research and coordinate the key sectors involved in child abuse and exploitation namely Probation and Child Care Services, Justice and Law Enforcement authorities, Defense, Health, Education and Samurdhi as well as the NGO and INGO networks.

Nongovernmental

ChildSafe, formerly known as Alamo Children's Advocacy Center, is stationed in Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia, France, Germany, Switzerland, and the United States. ChildSafe's mission is to "restore dignity, trust and hope to children traumatized by sexual abuse." [22]

The Constitutional Right Project (CRP) is located in Nigeria and was established in November 1990. The main purpose of this organization is to protect people's human rights and to make sure people abide by Nigerian Laws. [23]

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was founded in 1975. Its mission is to "promote economic integration in "all fields of economic activity, particularly industry, transport, telecommunications, energy, agriculture, natural resources, commerce, monetary and financial questions, social and cultural matters ..." [24]

End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism (ECPAT) was established in 1992. Stationed in Bangkok Thailand, ECPAT's mission statement is "ECPAT International is a global network of organizations and individuals working together for the elimination of child prostitution, child pornography and the trafficking of children for sexual purposes. It seeks to encourage the world community to ensure that children everywhere enjoy their fundamental rights free and secure from all forms of commercial sexual exploitation." [25]

Enfants Solidaires d'Afrique et du Monde (ESAM) is based in Benin, West Africa. ESAM was officially recognized May 17, 1990. [1]

Odanadi-UK is based in Mysore, South India. Founded in 2007, Odanadi-UK's objectives are "to prevent, tackle and eliminate human trafficking and sexual exploitation." [26]

World Association for Orphans (WAO Afrique) is based in Lomé, Togo. [3]

United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) has published three textbooks dealing with combating trafficking in children. [27]

MANNA Freedom is the human trafficking prevention arm of MANNA Worldwide and provides awareness, resources and homes for at-risk children and teens.

Laws

This is a list of laws and legislation that have been passed by different countries to combat human trafficking. Most of these laws have come into effect because of non-governmental organizations and the country's specific experiences with human trafficking. As time goes on, and there are more people involved in human trafficking awareness will be raised and more laws will be put into effect.

Educational materials

Governmental and non-governmental organizations have been making great strides in providing information on human trafficking in today's society. Pamphlets, handbooks, websites, and handouts focusing on human trafficking have been made readily available for the public.

UNICEF has published three textbooks, with the assistance of Dr. Gilly McKenzie, an expert in Trafficking and Organised Crime, involving child trafficking. Textbook One is titled Understanding Child Trafficking. This textbook includes the National Action Plans on child trafficking; focusing on attempts and ideas to eliminate child trafficking. This textbook states that coordination among groups is necessary to help combat human trafficking. [29]

Textbook Two is titled Action against child trafficking at policy and outreach levels. This textbook discusses assistance for the victims, law enforcement, and prevention. Each section clearly states what governments, non-governmental organizations, and worker's organizations can do to help combat human trafficking. [30]

Textbook Three is titled The Matters of Process. This book talks about ways to provide education to children and young adults in order to prevent them from going into or being a part of human trafficking. Media and social dialogues are being used to get this information to children and young adults. [31]

The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime published a training manual, by Dr. Gilly McKenzie, titled "Assistance for the Implementation of the ECOWAS Plan of Action against Trafficking in Persons". This manual is focused on human trafficking in West Africa, giving protection and support for those who have previously been trafficked. According to the manual, materials to raise awareness about trafficking will be readily available for those who wish to receive them. This training manual defines human trafficking and shows the differences between human trafficking and migrant smuggling. [32]

Further reading

Trafficking and Slavery (2002): pp. 60–68.

Related Research Articles

Child sex tourism (CST) is tourism for the purpose of engaging in the prostitution of children, which is commercially facilitated child sexual abuse. The definition of child in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child is "every human being below the age of 18 years". Child sex tourism results in both mental and physical consequences for the exploited children, which may include sexually transmitted infections, "drug addiction, pregnancy, malnutrition, social ostracism, and death", according to the State Department of the United States. Child sex tourism, part of the multibillion-dollar global sex tourism industry, is a form of child prostitution within the wider issue of commercial sexual exploitation of children. Child sex tourism victimizes approximately 2 million children around the world. The children who perform as prostitutes in the child sex tourism trade often have been lured or abducted into sexual slavery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Child prostitution</span> Prostitution involving a child

Child prostitution is prostitution involving a child, and it is a form of commercial sexual exploitation of children. The term normally refers to prostitution of a minor, or person under the legal age of consent. In most jurisdictions, child prostitution is illegal as part of general prohibition on prostitution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Commercial sexual exploitation of children</span> Commercial transaction that involves the sexual exploitation of a child

Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children (CSEC) defines the "umbrella" of crimes and activities that involve inflicting sexual abuse on to a child as a financial or personal opportunity. Commercial Sexual Exploitation consists of forcing a child into prostitution, sex trafficking, early marriage, child sex tourism and any other venture of exploiting children into sexual activities. According to the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, the lack of reporting the crime and "the difficulties associated with identifying and measuring victims and perpetrators" has made it almost impossible to create a national estimate of the prevalence of Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children in the United States. There is an estimated one million children that are exploited for commercial sex globally; of the one million children that are exploited, the majority are girls.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trafficking of children</span> Form of human trafficking

Trafficking of children is a form of human trafficking and is defined by the United Nations as the "recruitment, transportation, harboring, and/or receipt" kidnapping of a child for the purpose of slavery, forced labour, and exploitation. This definition is substantially wider than the same document's definition of "trafficking in persons". Children may also be trafficked for adoption. Not all adoption is a form of human trafficking, but illegal or informal is. Illegal adoptions violate multiple child rights norms and principles, including the best interests of the child, the principle of subsidiarity and the prohibition of improper financial gain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex trafficking</span> Trade of sexual slaves

Sex trafficking is human trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation. It has been called a form of modern slavery because of the way victims are forced into sexual acts non-consensually, in a form of sexual slavery. Perpetrators of the crime are called sex traffickers or pimps—people who manipulate victims to engage in various forms of commercial sex with paying customers. Sex traffickers use force, fraud, and coercion as they recruit, transport, and provide their victims as prostitutes. Sometimes victims are brought into a situation of dependency on their trafficker(s), financially or emotionally. Every aspect of sex trafficking is considered a crime, from acquisition to transportation and exploitation of victims. This includes any sexual exploitation of adults or minors, including child sex tourism (CST) and domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human trafficking in the Philippines</span>

Human trafficking and the prostitution of children has been a significant issue in the Philippines, often controlled by organized crime syndicates. Human trafficking is a crime against humanity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prostitution in Ukraine</span>

Prostitution in Ukraine is illegal but widespread and largely ignored by the government. In recent times, Ukraine has become a popular prostitution and sex trafficking destination. Ukraine is a source, transit, and destination country for women and children trafficked transnationally for the purposes of commercial sexual exploitation. Ukraine's dissolution from the Soviet Union, saw the nation attempt to transition from a planned economy to a market economy. The transition process inflicted economic hardship in the nation, with nearly 80% of the population forced into poverty in the decade that followed its independence. Unemployment in Ukraine was growing at an increasing rate, with female unemployment rising to 64% by 1997. The economic decline in Ukraine made the nation vulnerable and forced many to depend on prostitution and trafficking as a source of income. Sex tourism rose as the country attracted greater numbers of foreign tourists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human trafficking in Cambodia</span>

In 2006, Cambodia was a source, transit, and destination country for human trafficking. The traffickers were reportedly organized crime syndicates, parents, relatives, friends, intimate partners, and neighbors.

The Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003, officially designated as Republic Act No. 9208, is a consolidation of Senate Bill No. 2444 and House Bill No. 4432. It was enacted and passed by Congress of the Philippines' Senate of the Philippines and House of Representatives of the Philippines assembled on May 12, 2003, and signed into law by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo on May 26, 2003. It institutes policies to eliminate and punish human trafficking, especially women and children, establishing the necessary institutional mechanisms for the protection and support of trafficked persons. It aims "to promote human dignity, protect the people from any threat of violence and exploitation, and mitigate pressures for involuntary migration and servitude of persons, not only to support trafficked persons but more importantly, to ensure their recovery, rehabilitation and reintegration into the mainstream of society."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human trafficking</span> Trade of humans for exploitation

Human trafficking is the trade of humans for the purpose of forced labour, sexual slavery, or commercial sexual exploitation.

Human trafficking in Canada is prohibited by law, and is considered a criminal offence whether it occurs entirely within Canada or involves the "transporting of persons across Canadian borders. Public Safety Canada (PSC) defines human trafficking as "the recruitment, transportation, harbouring and/or exercising control, direction or influence over the movements of a person in order to exploit that person, typically through sexual exploitation or forced labour. It is often described as a modern form of slavery."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Child trafficking in India</span>

India has a very high volume of child trafficking. As many as one child disappears every eight minutes, according to the National Crime Records Bureau. In some cases, children are taken from their homes to be bought and sold in the market. In other cases, children are tricked into the hands of traffickers by being presented an opportunity for a job, when in reality, upon arrival they become enslaved. In India, there are many children trafficked for various reasons such as labor, begging, and sexual exploitation. Because of the nature of this crime, it is hard to track; due to the poor enforcement of laws, it is difficult to prevent. As such, there are only vague estimates of figures regarding the issue. India is a prime area for child trafficking to occur, as many of those trafficked are from, travel through or destined to go to India. Though most of the trafficking occurs within the country, there is also a significant number of children trafficked from Nepal and Bangladesh. There are many different causes that lead to child trafficking, with the primary reasons being poverty, weak law enforcement, and a lack of good quality public education. The traffickers that take advantage of children can be from another area in India, or could even know the child personally. Children who return home after being trafficked often face shame in their communities, rather than being welcomed home.

Barbados is a source and destination country for men, women, and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced prostitution and forced labor. Some children in Barbados were subjected to commercial sexual exploitation in “transactional sex” wherein a third party such as a parent received a benefit from the child's participation in sexual activity. Researchers identified patterns of transactional sex within families, most often by adult male caretakers such as step-fathers, as well as child prostitution outside the home. Women from the Dominican Republic, Guyana, and Jamaica voluntarily entered Barbados as illegal migrants, and some expected to engage in prostitution. Some of these women were exploited in forced prostitution subsequent to their arrival. Some other foreign women who entered the country illegally were exploited in involuntary domestic servitude in private homes. Foreign men have been transported to Barbados for the purpose of labor exploitation in construction and other sectors. Sex traffickers, primarily organized criminals from Guyana, formed partnerships with pimps and brothel owners from Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados, and lured women to Barbados with offers of legitimate work. Trafficking victims tend to enter the country through legal means, usually by air; traffickers later used force and coercion to obtain and maintained the victims' work in strip clubs, massage parlors, some private residences, and “entertainment clubs” which operate as brothels. Traffickers used methods such as threats of physical harm or deportation, debt bondage, false contracts, psychological abuse, and confinement to force victims to work in construction, the garment industry, agriculture, or private households.

Belgium is a source, destination, and transit country for men, women, and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor and forced prostitution. Victims originate in Eastern Europe, Africa, East Asia, as well as Brazil and India. Some victims are smuggled through Belgium to other European countries, where they are subjected to forced labor and forced prostitution. Male victims are subjected to forced labor and exploitation in restaurants, bars, sweatshops, horticulture sites, fruit farms, construction sites, and retail shops. There were reportedly seven Belgian women subjected to forced prostitution in Luxembourg in 2009. According to a 2009 ECPAT Report, the majority of girls and children subjected to forced prostitution in Belgium originate from Balkan and CIS countries, Eastern Europe, Asia and West Africa ; some young foreign boys are exploited in prostitution in major cities in the country. Local observers also report that a large portion of children trafficked in Belgium are unaccompanied, vulnerable asylum seekers and refugees. Criminal organizations from Thailand use Thai massage parlors in Belgium, which are run by Belgian managers, to sexually exploit young Thai women. These networks are involved in human smuggling and trafficking to exploit victims economically and sexually. Belgium is not only a destination country, but also a transit country for children to be transported to other European country destinations.

Nigeria is a source, transit, and destination country for women and children subjected to trafficking in persons including forced labour and forced prostitution. The U.S. State Department's Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons placed the country in "Tier 2 Watchlist" in 2017. Trafficked people, particularly women and children, are recruited from within and outside the country's borders – for involuntary domestic servitude, sexual exploitation, street hawking, domestic servitude, mining, begging etc. Some are taken from Nigeria to other West and Central African countries, primarily Gabon, Cameroon, Ghana, Chad, Benin, Togo, Niger, Burkina Faso, and the Gambia, for the same purposes. Children from other West African states like Benin, Togo, and Ghana – where Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) rules allow for easy entry – are also forced to work in Nigeria, and some are subjected to hazardous jobs in Nigeria's granite mines. Europe, especially Italy and Russia, the Middle East and North Africa, are prime destinations for forced prostitution. Nigerians accounted for 21% of the 181,000 migrants that arrived in Italy through the Mediterranean in 2016 and about 21,000 Nigerian women and girls have been trafficked to Italy since 2015.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">ECPAT</span> Non-governmental organization

ECPAT is a global network of civil society organisations that works to end the sexual exploitation of children. It focuses on ending the online sexual exploitation of children, the trafficking of children for sexual purposes, the sexual exploitation of children in prostitution, child, early and forced marriages, and the sexual exploitation of children in the travel and tourism industry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human trafficking in Southeast Asia</span>

Human trafficking in Southeast Asia has long been a problem for the area and is still prevalent today. It has been observed that as economies continue to grow, the demand for labor is at an all-time high in the industrial sector and the sex tourism sector. A mix of impoverished individuals and the desire for more wealth creates an environment for human traffickers to benefit in the Southeast Asia region. Many nations within the region have taken preventive measures to end human trafficking within their borders and punish traffickers operating there.

Sex trafficking in China is human trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation and slavery that occurs in the People's Republic of China. It is a country of origin, destination, and transit for sexually trafficked persons.

Sex trafficking in Japan is human trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation and slavery that occurs in the country. Japan is a country of origin, destination, and transit for sexually trafficked persons.

References

  1. 1 2 "Enfants Solidaires d'Afrique et du Monde (Solidarity for Children in Africa and the World)". Esamsolidarity.org. Archived from the original on 2012-03-20. Retrieved 2012-07-27.
  2. 1 2 3 Dottridge, Mike. "Trafficking in children in West and Central Africa", Gender and Development, 10(1): 41
  3. 1 2 "WAOA Afrique". Waoafrique.org. 2011-12-20. Archived from the original on 2006-02-12. Retrieved 2012-07-27.
  4. ↑ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. “Assistance for the Implementation of the ECOWAS Plan of Action against Trafficking in Persons Training Manual,” United Nations, 2006.
  5. 1 2 Australian Government. “Crimes (Child Sex Tourism) Amendment Act 1994,” COMLAW (Commonwealth of Australia Law) 1994.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Jullien, Karene. “The Recent International Efforts to End Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children,” Denver Journal of International Law and Policy, 2003.
  7. ↑ Federative Republic of Brazil. “Answers to the List of issues to be taken up by Prof. Dr. Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro in charge with the United Nations Secretary – General’s Global Study on Violence against Children,”2004.
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  11. ↑ "METTRE FIN À L'EXPLOITATION SEXUELLE DES ENFANTS". Archived from the original on April 25, 2010. Retrieved November 18, 2010.
  12. ↑ Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, U.S. State Department. “Country Reports on Human Rights Practices,” 2004.
  13. ↑ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "Refworld | Trafficking in Persons Report 2008 – France". UNHCR. Retrieved 2012-07-27.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 Papadimos, Sophia (2012). "Human Trafficking in Serbia and Greece: A Comparative Analysis of a Victim-Centered Approach": 23. Retrieved 22 October 2016.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  15. ↑ "Odanadi | Home". Odanadi-uk.org. Archived from the original on 2018-08-10. Retrieved 2012-07-27.
  16. ↑ Ekberg, Gunilla. “Swedish Law that Prohibits the Purchase of Sexual Services: Best Practices for Prevention of Prostitution and Trafficking of Human Beings,” Violence Against Women, 2004.
  17. ↑ "Terrorism Legislation Database". Unodc.org. Archived from the original on 2016-02-01. Retrieved 2012-07-27.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 "Tool 9.13 – Commercial sexual exploitation of children" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-07-27.
  19. ↑ "Great American History Thirteenth Amendment". Greatamericanhistory.net. Retrieved 2012-07-27.
  20. 1 2 Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000
  21. 1 2 "NCPA-Sri Lanka". Childprotection.gov.lk. Retrieved 2012-07-27.
  22. ↑ Friends International/Cambodia Child Rights. "Contact Us". ChildSafe International. Archived from the original on 2012-07-22. Retrieved 2012-07-27.
  23. ↑ "デリヘル求人のウラ側". Crpnigeria.org. 2012-06-25. Retrieved 2012-07-27.
  24. ↑ Paul D Kpognon. "Ecowas Official Site | Site Officiel De La Cedeao". Comm.ecowas.int. Archived from the original on 2012-05-26. Retrieved 2012-07-27.
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  28. ↑ “The Constitution of the United States,” Amendment 13.
  29. ↑ Organization, International Labor. Understanding Child Trafficking, Geneva: International Labor Office, 2009.
  30. ↑ Organization, International Labor. Action Against Child Trafficking at Policy and Outreach Levels, Geneva: International Labor Office, 2009.
  31. ↑ Organization, International Labor. The Matters of Process, Geneva: International Labor Office, 2009.
  32. ↑ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Assistance for the Implementation of the ECOWAS Plan of Action against Trafficking in Persons: Training Manual, New York, 2006.
  33. ↑ "Human Trafficking and Slavery Related Movies and Documentaries | Children". 2011-07-01. Archived from the original on 2011-07-01. Retrieved 2019-12-28.
  34. ↑ "Oklahomans Against Trafficking of Humans - O.A.T.H. - Resource Page". 2011-01-11. Archived from the original on 2011-01-11. Retrieved 2019-12-28.
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