Despite the United States never becoming an official member of the League of Nations, American individuals and organizations interacted with the League throughout its existence.
The American President, Woodrow Wilson, was involved in the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 at the conclusion of World War I. At this conference, Wilson played a key role along with other powers in fashioning the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. His ideas surrounding a postwar world order were earlier expressed in his Fourteen Points, and these were discussed in the series of discussions held. One of the key features of the agreement that Wilson campaigned for was the establishment of an international body which would work to maintain the political freedom and independence of nations all around the world. [1] This organization developed into the League of Nations, however, the American nation ultimately decided against becoming a formal member. [2]
Despite Woodrow Wilson chairing the committee which drafted the Treaty of Versailles Covenant, America voted against becoming official members of the League of Nations in 1919. [3] [4] Historians have explored a variety of reasons as to why exactly the Senate refused to approve the Treaty of Versailles, naming the hostility between President Wilson and Republican senator, Henry Cabot Lodge, and Wilson's declining health as key explanations. [5] Jacobsen states that "the rejection also should be seen in the context of the long-standing American ambivalence about involvement in international politics." [3] Furthermore, the United States would never become a member of the League of Nations, as a two-thirds majority was never granted in the Senate. [5] As a result, the dynamic between members of the League, and between the US and these nations was influenced. Henig explains this by suggesting that the absence of the United States as an official member of the League "widened the gulf between Britain and France." [6]
Despite the United States' lack of formal membership, the United States was involved in various League related projects and organizations. [4] [7] [8] They were involved in various sectors:
American citizens were employed at the secretariat; American academics contributed to League-sponsored research projects; American philanthropies financially supported these same economic projects, and American representatives from the banking and financial communities sat on its economic and financial committees. [9]
A notable American organization involved with the League of Nations was the Rockefeller Foundation, as many of its goals and aspirations were similar to those of the League. It was involved in the international economic section of the League and made considerable contributions to it during the 1930s. [10]
The United States was involved with the League of Nations in resolving the Manchurian Crisis. [11]
Debates surrounding the United States' policy of isolationism in international affairs during the 1920s and 1930s have been held since contemporary politicians were making these decisions. However, according to Thompson, it was the Manchurian Crisis of 1931-1932 that made Secretary of State, Henry L. Stimson support the position that isolationism was no longer an option for the United States. [12] Despite the American emphasize on their individuality from the League of Nations, a commission of inquiry sent to Japan in February 1932 was representative of the great powers, including the United States. [13] They had agreed to work collaboratively with the League to bring an end to the situation, however, they would "only operate under the Washington agreements of 1922 and the Kellogg-Briand Pact." [14]
The American absence in the League of Nations did not prevent the nation from becoming an official member of the United Nations, formed at the conclusion of the Second World War. The United States was one of five permanent members of the Security Council, with the other four countries the USSR, France, Nationalist China, and Britain. [15] The proposed task of this body was "to work together to secure the maintenance of international peace and security." [15]
The membership of the United States and the USSR in the United Nations is a key difference between the post-World War II international organization and the League of Nations. According to Henig, the official involvement of the United States "gave the United Nations a global reach which the League lacked, symbolised by the fact that its headquarters was established in New York." [16]
The League of Nations was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. The main organisation ceased operations on 18 April 1946 when many of its components were relocated into the new United Nations. As the template for modern global governance, the League profoundly shaped the modern world.
The judiciary is the system of courts that adjudicates legal disputes/disagreements and interprets, defends, and applies the law in legal cases.
Media imperialism is an area in the international political economy of communications research tradition that focuses on how "all Empires, in territorial or nonterritorial forms, rely upon communications technologies and mass media industries to expand and shore up their economic, geopolitical, and cultural influence." In the main, most media imperialism research examines how the unequal relations of economic, military and cultural power between an imperialist country and those on the receiving end of its influence tend to be expressed and perpetuated by mass media and cultural industries.
The Algerian Communist Party was a communist party in Algeria. The PCA emerged in 1920 as an extension of the French Communist Party (PCF) and eventually became a separate entity in 1936. Despite this, it was recognized by the Comintern in 1935. Its first congress was in Algiers in July 1936, also the site of the PCA's headquarters.
Henry Edward Garrett was an American psychologist and segregationist. Garrett was President of the American Psychological Association in 1946 and Chair of Psychology at Columbia University from 1941 to 1955. After he left Columbia, he was visiting professor at the University of Virginia. A.S. Winston chronicles that he was involved in the International Association for the Advancement of Ethnology and Eugenics (IAAEE), the journal Mankind Quarterly, the neofascist Northern League, and the ultra-right wing political group, the Liberty Lobby.
Realism, a school of thought in international relations theory, is a theoretical framework that views world politics as an enduring competition among self-interested states vying for power and positioning within an anarchic global system devoid of a centralized authority. It centers on states as rational primary actors navigating a system shaped by power politics, national interest, and a pursuit of security and self-preservation.
Hans Hermann Herz was an American scholar of international relations and law. He coined the concept of the security dilemma.
The Albany Plan of Union was a rejected plan to create a unified government for the Thirteen Colonies at the Albany Congress on July 10, 1754 in Albany, New York. The plan was suggested by Benjamin Franklin, then a senior leader and a delegate from Pennsylvania. Franklin spent much time among the Iroquois in an attempt to convince them to adopt the plan and pleaded with the colonial leaders to consider the plan. More than twenty representatives of several Northern Atlantic colonies had gathered to plan their defense related to the French and Indian War (1754–1763), the front in North America of the Seven Years' War between Great Britain and France, spurred on by George Washington's recent defeat in the Ohio valley. The Plan represented one of multiple early attempts to form a union of the colonies "under one government as far as might be necessary for defense and other general important purposes." The plan was rejected but it was a forerunner for the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.
An international organization, also known as an intergovernmental organization or an international institution, is an organization that is established by a treaty or other type of instrument governed by international law and possesses its own legal personality, such as the United Nations, the World Health Organization, International Union for Conservation of Nature, and BRICS. International organizations are composed of primarily member states, but may also include other entities, such as other international organizations, firms, and nongovernmental organizations. Additionally, entities may hold observer status.
Richard Abraham Primus is an American legal scholar. He currently teaches United States constitutional law at the University of Michigan Law School, where he is Theodore J. St. Antoine Collegiate Professor of Law. In 2008, he was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship for his work on the relationship between history and constitutional interpretation.
The Economic Adjustment Programme for Ireland, usually referred to as the Bailout programme, is a memorandum of understanding on financial assistance to the Republic of Ireland in order to cope with the Post-2008 Irish financial crisis.
Rosette Susanna "Rosa" Manus was a Jewish Dutch pacifist and female suffragist involved in women's movements and anti-war movements, who was a victim of the Holocaust. She served as the President of the Society for Female Suffrage, the Vice President of the Dutch Association for Women's Interests and Equal Citizenship, and was one of the founding members of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF) as well as its secretary. She firmly believed that women could work together across the world to bring peace. Although Manus was fairly well known in feminist circles in the 1920s and 1930s, she remains relatively unknown today. She was involved in feminist work for about thirty years during her lifetime and was known as a "feminist liberal internationalist."
Civic studies is an interdisciplinary field that empirically investigates civic engagement, civic education, and civil society. It also aims to influence the social sciences and humanities in general to take the perspective of intentional human actors—people who reason and work together to improve their worlds—in addition to institutions and impersonal social forces.
Il Khan, in Turkic languages and Mongolian, is a title of leadership. It combines the title khan with the prefix el/il, from the word ulus – 'tribe, clan', 'the people', 'nation', 'homeland', 'state', 'tribal union', etc.
Arctic geopolitics is the area study of geopolitics on the Arctic region. The study of geopolitics deals with the "inalienable relationship between geography and politics", as it investigates the effects of the Earth's geography on politics and international relations. Arctic geopolitics focuses on the inter-state relations in the Arctic, which is the northernmost polar region. It is composed of the Arctic Ocean and its adjacent seas, and is home to around four million people. The states in or bordering the Arctic are commonly referred to as the Arctic Eight, and are the United States, Canada, Russia, Finland, the Kingdom of Denmark (Greenland), Norway, Iceland and Sweden.
The Journal of Austrian-American History is a biannual, open access, peer-reviewed scholarly journal published by Pennsylvania State University Press, and the flagship publication of the Botstiber Institute for Austrian-American Studies.
'Avrom Landy was a historian, writer and theorist on American Marxism in the first half of the twentieth century. He was the father of the American artist and researcher Professor Emeritus of the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, Sonia Landy Sheridan.
Constructivism presumes that ethnic identities are shapeable and affected by politics. Through this framework, constructivist theories reassesses conventional political science dogmas. Research indicates that institutionalized cleavages and a multiparty system discourage ethnic outbidding and identification with tribal, localized groups. In addition, constructivism questions the widespread belief that ethnicity inherently inhibits national, macro-scale identification. To prove this point, constructivist findings suggest that modernization, language consolidation, and border-drawing, weakened the tendency to identify with micro-scale identity categories. One manifestation of ethnic politics gone awry, ethnic violence, is itself not seen as necessarily ethnic, since it attains its ethnic meaning as a conflict progresses.
During World War I, Ethiopia briefly forged an alliance with the Allied Powers, following Italy's entry into the war in 1915. In June 1916, a dynastic conflict emerged when the uncrowned Emperor, Lij Iyasu, was alleged to have converted to Islam under the influence of the Ottoman Empire, which led him to be charged with apostasy. As a result, then-regent Ras Tafari Mekonnen, later known as Emperor Haile Selassie, orchestrated a coup d'état in September, deposing Lij Iyasu and installing Empress Zewditu on the throne. Throughout the war, Empress Zewditu maintained a stance of neutrality.
Scarlet Guard organizations were political organizations formed during the Cultural Revolution in China to oppose the more radical Red Guards.
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