Vaccine therapy

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Vaccine therapy is a type of treatment that uses a substance or group of substances to stimulate the immune system to destroy a tumor or infectious microorganisms such as bacteria or viruses.

Contents

Cancer vaccines

Cancer is a group of fatal diseases that involves abnormal cell growth that can invade or spread to other parts of the body. [1] They are usually caused by the accumulation of mutations in genes that regulate cell growth and differentiation. Majority of cancer, about 90-95%, are due to genetic mutations from environmental and lifestyle factors – including age, chemicals, diet, exercise, viruses, and radiation. The remaining 5-10% are due to inherited genetics. [2] Some of the cancers may be difficult to treat by conventional means such as surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, but may be controlled by the stimulation of the immune response of the body with the help of cancer vaccines.[ citation needed ]

  1. Preventive or prophylactic vaccines
  2. Treatment or therapeutic vaccines

These vaccines are intended to treat existing cancer by stimulating the patient’s immune system. [3]

Cancer vaccines can also divided into specific or universal cancer vaccine based on the types of cancer it is used for. Specific cancer vaccines are only used to treat a particular type of cancer while universal vaccine can be used to treat different types of cancer. [4]

Protein/peptide-based vaccines

Vaccines of this kind use specific tumor antigens, which are usually proteins or peptides, to stimulate immune system against either tumor specific antigens (TSAs) or tumor associated antigens (TAAs). This vaccine helps stimulate the patient's immune system to increase production of antibodies or killer T cells. [5]

Dendritic cell vaccines

Dendritic cells (DCs) are considered the most potent APC (antigen presenting cell) of the immune system. DC cells have a unique ability to stimulate naïve T cells and can be used to induce of antigen-specific immune response. Several DC-based cancer vaccines have been developed including DC loaded with, tumor peptides or whole proteins, [6] with tumor-derived mRNA or DNA., [7] DC transduced with viral vectors such as retroviruses, [8] lentiviruses [9] adenoviruses, [10] fowl pox [11] and alphaviruses containing the tumor antigen or gene of interest, whole necrotic or apoptotic tumor cells, [12] tumor cell lysates [13] and DC-fused with tumor cells. [14]

Whole tumor cell vaccines

An advantage to using tumor cell vaccines is that this type of vaccine is polyepitope, which means it can present an entire spectrum of TAAs to a patient’s immune system.[ citation needed ]

These vaccines are made from antigens taken from the patient’s own cancer cells. Autologous vaccines have been used to treat lung cancer, [15] colorectal cancer, [16] melanoma, [17] renal cell cancer, [18] and prostate cancer. [19]

These vaccines are made from antigens taken from individuals other than the patient, usually from cancer cell lines. [5]

Related Research Articles

Immunotherapy or biological therapy is the treatment of disease by activating or suppressing the immune system. Immunotherapies designed to elicit or amplify an immune response are classified as activation immunotherapies, while immunotherapies that reduce or suppress are classified as suppression immunotherapies. Immunotherapy is under preliminary research for its potential to treat various forms of cancer.

A cancer vaccine is a vaccine that either treats existing cancer or prevents development of cancer. Vaccines that treat existing cancer are known as therapeutic cancer vaccines or tumor antigen vaccines. Some of the vaccines are "autologous", being prepared from samples taken from the patient, and are specific to that patient.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cancer immunotherapy</span> Artificial stimulation of the immune system to treat cancer

Cancer immunotherapy is the stimulation of the immune system to treat cancer, improving on the immune system's natural ability to fight the disease. It is an application of the fundamental research of cancer immunology and a growing subspecialty of oncology.

Cross-presentation is the ability of certain professional antigen-presenting cells (mostly dendritic cells) to take up, process and present extracellular antigens with MHC class I molecules to CD8 T cells (cytotoxic T cells). Cross-priming, the result of this process, describes the stimulation of naive cytotoxic CD8+ T cells into activated cytotoxic CD8+ T cells. This process is necessary for immunity against most tumors and against viruses that infect dendritic cells and sabotage their presentation of virus antigens. Cross presentation is also required for the induction of cytotoxic immunity by vaccination with protein antigens, for example, tumour vaccination.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ipilimumab</span> Pharmaceutical drug

Ipilimumab, sold under the brand name Yervoy, is a monoclonal antibody medication that works to activate the immune system by targeting CTLA-4, a protein receptor that downregulates the immune system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cancer immunology</span> Study of the role of the immune system in cancer

Cancer immunology is an interdisciplinary branch of biology that is concerned with understanding the role of the immune system in the progression and development of cancer; the most well known application is cancer immunotherapy, which utilises the immune system as a treatment for cancer. Cancer immunosurveillance and immunoediting are based on protection against development of tumors in animal systems and (ii) identification of targets for immune recognition of human cancer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes</span>

Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) are white blood cells that have left the bloodstream and migrated towards a tumor. They include T cells and B cells and are part of the larger category of ‘tumor-infiltrating immune cells’ which consist of both mononuclear and polymorphonuclear immune cells, in variable proportions. Their abundance varies with tumor type and stage and in some cases relates to disease prognosis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CTAG1B</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Cancer/testis antigen 1 also known as LAGE2 or LAGE2B is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CTAG1B gene. It is most often referenced by its alias NY-ESO-1.

Autologous patient-specific tumor antigen response (apSTAR) technology is a new cancer treatment procedure being developed by IMULAN BioTherapeutics, LLC and Veterinary Cancer Therapeutics, LLC for comparative oncology.

Adoptive cell transfer (ACT) is the transfer of cells into a patient. The cells may have originated from the patient or from another individual. The cells are most commonly derived from the immune system with the goal of improving immune functionality and characteristics. In autologous cancer immunotherapy, T cells are extracted from the patient, genetically modified and cultured in vitro and returned to the same patient. Comparatively, allogeneic therapies involve cells isolated and expanded from a donor separate from the patient receiving the cells.

Gustav Gaudernack is a scientist working in the development of cancer vaccines and cancer immunotherapy. He has developed various strategies in immunological treatment of cancer. He is involved in several ongoing cellular and immuno-gene therapeutic clinical trials and his research group has put major efforts into the development of various T cell-based immunotherapeutic strategies.

ALECSAT technology is a novel method of epigenetic cancer immunotherapy being used by the company CytoVac. It uses a patient's own immune system to target tumor cells in prostate cancer, glioblastomas, and potentially pancreatic cancer. ALECSAT research, directed by Alexei Kirken and Karine Dzhandzhugazyan, has led to several clinical trials.

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) are a heterogeneous group of immune cells from the myeloid lineage.

Cytokine-induced killer cells (CIK) cells are a group of immune effector cells featuring a mixed T- and natural killer (NK) cell-like phenotype. They are generated by ex vivo incubation of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) or cord blood mononuclear cells with interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), anti-CD3 antibody, recombinant human interleukin (IL)-1 and recombinant human interleukin (IL)-2.

Cancer/testis (CT) antigens are a group of proteins united by their importance in development and in cancer immunotherapy. In general, expression of these proteins is restricted to male germ cells in the adult animal. However, in cancer these developmental antigens are often re-expressed and can serve as a locus of immune activation. Thus, they are often classified as tumor antigens. The expression of CT antigens in various malignancies is heterogeneous and often correlates with tumor progression. CT antigens have been described in melanoma, liver cancer, lung cancer, bladder cancer, and pediatric tumors such as neuroblastoma. Gametogenesis offers an important role for many of these antigens in the differentiation, migration, and cell division of primordial germ cells, spermatogonia spermatocytes and spermatids. Because of their tumor-restricted expression and strong in vivo immunogenicity, CT antigens are identified as ideal targets for tumor specific immunotherapeutic approaches and prompted the development of several clinical trials of CT antigens-based vaccine therapy. CT antigens have been found to have at least 70 families so far, including about 140 members, most of which are expressed during spermatogenesis. Their expression are mainly regulated by epigenetic events, specifically, DNA methylation.

Combinatorial ablation and immunotherapy is an oncological treatment that combines various tumor-ablation techniques with immunotherapy treatment. Combining ablation therapy of tumors with immunotherapy enhances the immunostimulating response and has synergistic effects for curative metastatic cancer treatment. Various ablative techniques are utilized including cryoablation, radiofrequency ablation, laser ablation, photodynamic ablation, stereotactic radiation therapy, alpha-emitting radiation therapy, hyperthermia therapy, HIFU. Thus, combinatorial ablation of tumors and immunotherapy is a way of achieving an autologous, in-vivo tumor lysate vaccine and treating metastatic disease.

The dendritic cell-based cancer vaccine is an innovation in therapeutic strategy for cancer patients.

Individualized cancer immunotherapy, also referred to as individualized immuno-oncology, is a novel concept for therapeutic cancer vaccines that are truly personalized to a single individual.

A therapeutic vaccine is a vaccine which is administered after a disease or infection has already occurred. A therapeutic vaccine works by activating the immune system of a patient to fight an infection. A therapeutic vaccine differs from a prophylactic vaccine in that prophylactic vaccines are administered to individuals as a precautionary measure to avoid the infection or disease while therapeutic vaccines are administered after the individual is already affected by the disease or infection. A therapeutic vaccine fights an existing infection in the body rather than immunizing the body for protection against future diseases and infections. Therapeutic vaccines are mostly used against viral infections. Patients affected with chronic viral infections are administered with therapeutic vaccines, as their immune system is not able to produce enough efficient antibodies.

Whole-cell vaccines are a type of vaccine that has been prepared in the laboratory in such a way to express immune cells such as cytokines, chemokines and other costimulatory molecules. When administered to the patients, these molecules will stimulate the immune system of the patient. The whole-cell vaccine simultaneously targets multiple antigens to activate the immune system and induces antigen-specific T-cell responses.

References

  1. ↑ "What Is Cancer?". National Cancer Institute. 2007-09-17. Retrieved 2019-04-15.
  2. ↑ Anand P, Kunnumakkara AB, Kunnumakara AB, Sundaram C, Harikumar KB, Tharakan ST, Lai OS, Sung B, Aggarwal BB (September 2008). "Cancer is a preventable disease that requires major lifestyle changes". Pharmaceutical Research. 25 (9): 2097–116. doi:10.1007/s11095-008-9661-9. PMC   2515569 . PMID   18626751.
  3. ↑ Lollini PL, Cavallo F, Nanni P, Forni G (March 2006). "Vaccines for tumour prevention". Nature Reviews. Cancer. 6 (3): 204–16. doi:10.1038/nrc1815. PMID   16498443. S2CID   41804071.
  4. ↑ Evans WK, Shepherd FA, Feld R, Osoba D, Dang P, Deboer G (November 1985). "VP-16 and cisplatin as first-line therapy for small-cell lung cancer". Journal of Clinical Oncology. 3 (11): 1471–7. doi:10.1016/s0169-5002(86)80104-0. PMID   2997406.
  5. 1 2 Guo C, Manjili MH, Subjeck JR, Sarkar D, Fisher PB, Wang XY (2013). "Therapeutic cancer vaccines: past, present, and future". Advances in Cancer Research. 119: 421–75. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-407190-2.00007-1. PMC   3721379 . PMID   23870514.
  6. ↑ Li Y, Bendandi M, Deng Y, Dunbar C, Munshi N, Jagannath S, Kwak LW, Lyerly HK (October 2000). "Tumor-specific recognition of human myeloma cells by idiotype-induced CD8(+) T cells". Blood. 96 (8): 2828–33. doi:10.1182/blood.V96.8.2828. PMID   11023518.
  7. ↑ Van Tendeloo VF, Ponsaerts P, Lardon F, Nijs G, Lenjou M, Van Broeckhoven C, Van Bockstaele DR, Berneman ZN (July 2001). "Highly efficient gene delivery by mRNA electroporation in human hematopoietic cells: superiority to lipofection and passive pulsing of mRNA and to electroporation of plasmid cDNA for tumor antigen loading of dendritic cells". Blood. 98 (1): 49–56. doi:10.1182/blood.v98.1.49. PMID   11418462.
  8. ↑ Ardeshna KM, Pizzey AR, Thomas NS, Orr S, Linch DC, Devereux S (March 2000). "Monocyte-derived dendritic cells do not proliferate and are not susceptible to retroviral transduction". British Journal of Haematology. 108 (4): 817–24. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2141.2000.01956.x . PMID   10792288.
  9. ↑ He Y, Zhang J, Mi Z, Robbins P, Falo LD (March 2005). "Immunization with lentiviral vector-transduced dendritic cells induces strong and long-lasting T cell responses and therapeutic immunity". Journal of Immunology. 174 (6): 3808–17. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.6.3808 . PMID   15749922.
  10. ↑ Di Nicola M, Carlo-Stella C, Milanesi M, Magni M, Longoni P, Mortarini R, Anichini A, Tomanin R, Scarpa M, Gianni AM (October 2000). "Large-scale feasibility of gene transduction into human CD34+ cell-derived dendritic cells by adenoviral/polycation complex". British Journal of Haematology. 111 (1): 344–50. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.2000.02258.x. PMID   11091223. S2CID   44393668.
  11. ↑ Kim CJ, Cormier J, Roden M, Gritz L, Mazzara GP, Fetsch P, Hijazi Y, Lee KH, Rosenberg SA, Marincola FM (January 1998). "Use of recombinant poxviruses to stimulate anti-melanoma T cell reactivity". Annals of Surgical Oncology. 5 (1): 64–76. doi:10.1007/bf02303766. PMID   9524710. S2CID   36897075.
  12. ↑ Chen Z, Moyana T, Saxena A, Warrington R, Jia Z, Xiang J (August 2001). "Efficient antitumor immunity derived from maturation of dendritic cells that had phagocytosed apoptotic/necrotic tumor cells". International Journal of Cancer. 93 (4): 539–48. doi:10.1002/ijc.1365. PMID   11477558. S2CID   7012856.
  13. ↑ Ferlazzo G, Semino C, Spaggiari GM, Meta M, Mingari MC, Melioli G (December 2000). "Dendritic cells efficiently cross-prime HLA class I-restricted cytolytic T lymphocytes when pulsed with both apoptotic and necrotic cells but not with soluble cell-derived lysates". International Immunology. 12 (12): 1741–7. doi: 10.1093/intimm/12.12.1741 . PMID   11099314.
  14. ↑ Avigan D, Rosenblatt J, Kufe D (June 2012). "Dendritic/tumor fusion cells as cancer vaccines". Seminars in Oncology. 39 (3): 287–95. doi:10.1053/j.seminoncol.2012.02.003. PMID   22595051.
  15. ↑ Nemunaitis J, Nemunaitis J (November 2003). "Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene-transfected autologous tumor cell vaccine: focus[correction to fcous] on non-small-cell lung cancer". Clinical Lung Cancer. 5 (3): 148–57. doi:10.3816/clc.2003.n.027. PMID   14667270.
  16. ↑ de Weger VA, Turksma AW, Voorham QJ, Euler Z, Bril H, van den Eertwegh AJ, Bloemena E, Pinedo HM, Vermorken JB, van Tinteren H, Meijer GA, Hooijberg E (February 2012). "Clinical effects of adjuvant active specific immunotherapy differ between patients with microsatellite-stable and microsatellite-instable colon cancer". Clinical Cancer Research. 18 (3): 882–9. doi: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-11-1716 . PMID   22156611.
  17. ↑ Méndez R, Ruiz-Cabello F, Rodríguez T, Del Campo A, Paschen A, Schadendorf D, Garrido F (January 2007). "Identification of different tumor escape mechanisms in several metastases from a melanoma patient undergoing immunotherapy". Cancer Immunology, Immunotherapy. 56 (1): 88–94. doi:10.1007/s00262-006-0166-2. PMID   16622680. S2CID   6401524.
  18. ↑ Fishman M, Hunter TB, Soliman H, Thompson P, Dunn M, Smilee R, Farmelo MJ, Noyes DR, Mahany JJ, Lee JH, Cantor A, Messina J, Seigne J, Pow-Sang J, Janssen W, Antonia SJ (January 2008). "Phase II trial of B7-1 (CD-86) transduced, cultured autologous tumor cell vaccine plus subcutaneous interleukin-2 for treatment of stage IV renal cell carcinoma". Journal of Immunotherapy. 31 (1): 72–80. doi:10.1097/cji.0b013e31815ba792. PMID   18157014. S2CID   42910390.
  19. ↑ Berger M, Horst JL, Kreutz F, Pimentel M, Müller RL, Koff WJ (April 2006). "Phase I Study With an Immunomodulated Autologous Cell Vaccine for Locally Advanced Prostate Cancer". European Urology Supplements. 5 (2): 96. doi:10.1016/s1569-9056(06)60300-x.

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