Related Research Articles
European Union law is a system of rules operating within the member states of the European Union (EU). Since the founding of the European Coal and Steel Community following World War II, the EU has developed the aim to "promote peace, its values and the well-being of its peoples". The EU has political institutions, social and economic policies, which transcend nation states for the purpose of cooperation and human development. According to its Court of Justice the EU represents "a new legal order of international law".
United Kingdom labour law regulates the relations between workers, employers and trade unions. People at work in the UK have a minimum set of employment rights, from Acts of Parliament, Regulations, common law and equity. This includes the right to a minimum wage of £10.42 for over-23-year-olds from April 2023 under the National Minimum Wage Act 1998. The Working Time Regulations 1998 give the right to 28 days paid holidays, breaks from work, and attempt to limit long working hours. The Employment Rights Act 1996 gives the right to leave for child care, and the right to request flexible working patterns. The Pensions Act 2008 gives the right to be automatically enrolled in a basic occupational pension, whose funds must be protected according to the Pensions Act 1995. Workers must be able to vote for trustees of their occupational pensions under the Pensions Act 2004. In some enterprises, such as universities or NHS foundation trusts, staff can vote for the directors of the organisation. In enterprises with over 50 staff, workers must be negotiated with, with a view to agreement on any contract or workplace organisation changes, major economic developments or difficulties. The UK Corporate Governance Code recommends worker involvement in voting for a listed company's board of directors but does not yet follow international standards in protecting the right to vote in law. Collective bargaining, between democratically organised trade unions and the enterprise's management, has been seen as a "single channel" for individual workers to counteract the employer's abuse of power when it dismisses staff or fix the terms of work. Collective agreements are ultimately backed up by a trade union's right to strike: a fundamental requirement of democratic society in international law. Under the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992 strike action is protected when it is "in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute".
The European emission standards are vehicle emission standards for pollution from the use of new land surface vehicles sold in the European Union and European Economic Area member states and the United Kingdom, and ships in EU waters. The standards are defined in a series of European Union directives staging the progressive introduction of increasingly stringent standards.
Public water supply and sanitation in the United Kingdom is characterised by universal access and generally good service quality. A salient feature of the sector in the United Kingdom compared to other developed countries is the diversity of institutional arrangements between the constituting parts of the UK, which are each described in separate articles, while this article is devoted to some common issues across the United Kingdom.
United Kingdom enterprise law concerns the ownership and regulation of organisations producing goods and services in the UK, European and international economy. Private enterprises are usually incorporated under the Companies Act 2006, regulated by company law, competition law, and insolvency law, while almost one third of the workforce and half of the UK economy is in enterprises subject to special regulation. Enterprise law mediates the rights and duties of investors, workers, consumers and the public to ensure efficient production, and deliver services that UK and international law sees as universal human rights. Labour, company, competition and insolvency law create general rights for stakeholders, and set a basic framework for enterprise governance, but rules of governance, competition and insolvency are altered in specific enterprises to uphold the public interest, as well as civil and social rights. Universities and schools have traditionally been publicly established, and socially regulated, to ensure universal education. The National Health Service was set up in 1946 to provide everyone with free health care, regardless of class or income, paid for by progressive taxation. The UK government controls monetary policy and regulates private banking through the publicly owned Bank of England, to complement its fiscal policy. Taxation and spending composes nearly half of total economic activity, but this has diminished since 1979.
The Rail Passenger Rights Regulation 2007 (EC) No 1371/2007 gives railway passengers basic rights in EU law to refunds and minimum levels of service. It has mandatory application, without implementing legislation. Before this many countries, such as the United Kingdom, had no rights set in law for rail passengers. The Regulation creates minimum rights which every member state law, and every rail undertaking, may improve upon.
The Bathing Waters Directive 2006 is a Directive in EU law that sets standards for the water quality of beaches, lakes, rivers and other bathing waters.
The Deposit Guarantee Directive 2014/49 is a Directive in EU law that requires bank customers' deposits are guaranteed by member states up to €100,000.
The Gross National Income Regulation (EU) 2019/516 is a Regulation in EU law that sets out methods for calculating "Gross Domestic Product" and "Gross National Income" in EU accounts and for member states.
The Hydrocarbons Directive 1994 is a Directive in EU law that sets out conditions for authorising oil and gas drilling, fracking or other extraction of hydrocarbons in the EU.
Lliuya v RWE AG (2015) Case No. 2 O 285/15 is a German tort law and climate litigation case, concerning liability for climate damage in Peru from a melting glacier, against Germany's largest coal burning power company, RWE, which has caused approximately 0.47% of all historic greenhouse gas emissions. It is currently on appeal in the Upper State Court, Oberlandesgericht Hamm.
Smith v Fonterra Co-Operative Group Ltd [2021] NZCA 552 is a New Zealand tort law case, concerning liability of major fossil fuel polluters for climate damage.
The Agricultural Products Regulation (EU) No 1308/2013 is a Regulation in EU law that enables the limit of supply of agricultural goods to support fair prices.
The Agricultural Unfair Trading Practices Directive 2019 is an EU Directive designed to prevent misuse of supermarkets' bargaining power toward farmers in commercial dealings.
The Food Safety Regulation 2002(EC) No. 178/2002 is an EU regulation that ensures high standards of food in the regulation of the internal market.
The Emission Reduction Regulation 2019(EU) 2019/631 is an EU regulation that requires progressive reduction in emissions by petrol or diesel vehicles.
The Heavy Vehicle Emission Regulation 2019(EU) 2019/1242 is an EU regulation that limits the toxic exhausts of lorries, trucks or other heavy vehicles by auto-makers.
The Road Transport Regulation(EC) No. 561/2006 is an EU regulation that sets health and safety standards for workers who drive within the EU.
The Bus Passenger Rights Regulation 2011(EU) No 181/2011 is an EU regulation that creates rights for bus passengers, particularly when delayed.
The Postal Services Directive 1997 is an EU Directive for the regulation of postal services in the European Union.
References
- E McGaughey, Principles of Enterprise Law: the Economic Constitution and Human Rights (Cambridge UP 2022) ch 15, 526-7