Virtual Soldier Research Program

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The Virtual Soldier Research program (VSR) is a research group within the University of Iowa Center for Computer-Aided Design (CCAD). VSR was founded by Professor Karim Abdel-Malek (called the father of Santos) in 2003 through external funding from the US Army Tank Automotive Command (TACOM) to put the Warfighter at the center of US Army product designs. [1] Professor Abdel-Malek's background in robotics and the use of rigorous mathematical formulations was the first introduction of mathematical kinematics to the field of Digital Human Modeling (DHM). [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] Prior to 2003, all DHM models were based on experimental data that use lookup tables to enable the posturing of simple mannequins. Indeed, the first version of Santos, presented at the a DHM conference was met with great success because it was the first fully articulated digital human model that behaved as humans do, [8] whereby joints had constraints (also called ranges of motion) and a user could pull on an arm for example and as a result the entire body would respond accordingly. Cost functions representing human performance measures were used to drive the motion within the optimization formulation. [9] [10] [8] Seated posture prediction for example was accomplished by simply providing the seat geometry. [11] The posture prediction methodology was subsequently validated [12] [13] [14] Later on, the Predictive Dynamics method was created and used the same optimization technique with the addition of 3D laws of motion (equations of motion). [15] The Santos system includes many aspects of physiology modeling, [16] thermal, hand model, [17] grasp prediction, [18] [19] gait analysis including stability, [20] [15] mobility, suitability, survivability, maintainability, training, [21] and many other metrics typically used in the assessment of human performance for the Warfighter. [22]

Using this initial research and funding as a foundation, the VSR program continues to develop new technologies in digital human modeling and simulation, specifically with applications for the military, automotive, manufacturing, athletics, injury prediction, With over $60M in funding, the Santos simulation platform provides two key components that differentiates it among all other DHM systems: (1) Physics based [23] and (2) Predicts behavior. [24]

VSR's digital human model, Santos (R), stands at the center of its digital human modeling and simulation research. [25] The high-fidelity, biomechanically and biofidelic accurate musculoskeletal model incorporates 215 degrees of freedom, including the hand, [26] feet, and eyes. The dimensions of the skeleton are mutable, able to represent any anthropometric cross section. In addition, Santos includes a muscular system with the ability to predict muscle activation and muscle forces in real time, using a novel optimization-based methodology. [27] [28] [29] This method, developed over a period of eight years by the Virtual Soldier Research program is called Predictive Dynamics and published by a book [30] and a large number of papers. [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [6] [37] [38] [39] Furthermore, the gradient based methodology used to solve for the motion was also replaced with an artificial intelligence neural network method. [40] [41]

The mathematical model for the Santos skeleton was developed based on the Denavit-Hartenberg method for kinematic and dynamic analysis. [42] Optimization is used to determine postures and motions that are governed by various human performance measures (objective functions) and constrained by the restrictions imposed by the skeleton, the laws of physics, and the environment. The Santos simulation platform is being used by the US Military, industry (for example automotive industry), [43] and academia. The Virtual Soldier Research team transitioned a product from the Santos environment called Enhanced Technologies for the Optimization of Warfighter Load (ETOWL) funded by the Office of Naval Research (ONR) to the US Marines. [44] The product was later renamed as GruntSim. [45] This human modeling and simulation environment is now being used to study human factors [46] [47] and ergonomics [48] in many applications. [49] [50] This model includes not only Predictive Dynamics but also stability criteria called Zero Moment Point. [51] The use of the Santos Digital Human Model for example in assessing assembly issues in the design stage have been demonstrated [52] and for gait prediction as well. [53] Running for example, [54] which substantially more difficult to predict for a virtual human, was accomplished. [55]

The Santos simulation platform was developed from the ground up. Using the 215 DOF and based on the use of optimization based methods that enable cost functions to drive the motion, the numerical algorithm drives the motion to predict joint variables across time (also called joint profiles) and subject to a number of constraints. For example, predicting gait of any body type is now possible. [56] Similarly, any task can be modeled and simulated using this approach. [57] [58] Xiang, Yujiang, Jasbir S. Arora, and Karim Abdel-Malek. "Hybrid predictive dynamics: a new approach to simulate human motion." Multibody System Dynamics 28.3 (2012): 199-224. [59]

The Santos system was also used to predict injury for various activities, particularly musculoskeletal injuries in athletics, military, manufacturing, and other domains. [60]

VSR research has led to the spin-off of a private company, Santos Human Inc., [61] specifically focused on product development.

Who is Santos™?

Santos is the only physics-based [62] [63] virtual human that stands at the center of the digital human modeling and simulation research at the University of Iowa and in use by the US Army and the US Marines. This high-fidelity, biofidelic, biomechanically and physiologically accurate musculoskeletal model was developed from the inside out by a large multidisciplinary team, and incorporates 215 degrees of freedom, including the hand, feet, and eyes. The dimensions of the skeleton are mutable, able to represent any anthropometric cross section. In addition, Santos includes a muscular system with the ability to predict muscle activation and muscle forces in real time, using a novel optimization-based methodology. The Santos system has been used in many applications. [64]

Over time, the Santos family has grown to incorporate a variety of different body scans to provide a range of models that include our female version, Sophia, and a broad array of different body shapes, types, and sizes. [65] Our research is currently being extended to allow multiple digital human models to interact with each other to complete tasks cooperatively.

Santos was built using state-of-the-art technologies adapted from robotics, Hollywood, and the game industry. [66] VSR research continues to grow in its dynamic capabilities, physiology, and intelligent behaviors through integration of Artificial Intelligence, design optimization, physics-based modeling, and advanced, multi-scale physiological models. [16]

The mathematical model for the Santos skeleton was developed based on the Denavit-Hartenberg method for kinematic and dynamic analysis. Optimization is used to determine postures and motions that are governed by various human performance measures (objective functions) and constrained by the restrictions imposed by the skeleton, the laws of physics, and the environment. The software must be as fast and efficient as possible in an effort to provide real-time simulations.


The Santos continued to evolve and used to further develop programs with the US Marines (called GruntSim) to simulate load configuration on a Soldier, to study its effects, and to conduct tradeoff analysis.

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References

  1. ↑ Abdel-Malek, K., Yang, J., Kim, J.H., Beck, S., Swan, C., Frey-Law, L., Mathai, A., Murphy, C., Rahmatalla, S., and Arora, J. (2007). Development of the Virtual-Human Santos™. In V.G. Duffy (Ed.): Digital Human Modeling, HCII 2007, LNCS-4561, pp. 490-499.
  2. ↑ Yang, Jingzhou (James); Abdel-Malek, Karim (January 2009). "Human reach envelope and zone differentiation for ergonomic design". Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing. 19 (1): 15–34. doi: 10.1002/hfm.20135 . ISSN   1090-8471.
  3. ↑ Kim, Hyung Joo; Wang, Qian; Rahmatalla, Salam; Swan, Colby C.; Arora, Jasbir S.; Abdel-Malek, Karim; Assouline, Jose G. (2008-04-21). "Dynamic Motion Planning of 3D Human Locomotion Using Gradient-Based Optimization". Journal of Biomechanical Engineering. 130 (3): 031002. doi:10.1115/1.2898730. ISSN   0148-0731. PMID   18532851.
  4. ↑ Mi, Zan; Farrell, Kim; Abdel-Malek, Karim (2004-06-15). "Virtual Environment for Digital Human Simulation". SAE Technical Paper Series. 1. Warrendale, PA: SAE International. doi:10.4271/2004-01-2172.
  5. ↑ Mi, Zan; Yang, Jingzhou (James); Abdel-Malek, Karim (July 2009). "Optimization-based posture prediction for human upper body". Robotica. 27 (4): 607–620. doi:10.1017/s0263574708004992. ISSN   0263-5747. S2CID   31548152.
  6. 1 2 Abdel-Malek, Karim A.; Arora, Jasbir Singh (2013), "Posture Prediction and Optimization", Human Motion Simulation, Elsevier, pp. 41–68, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-405190-4.00003-9, ISBN   978-0-12-405190-4
  7. ↑ Johnson, Ross; Smith, Brian Lewis; Penmatsa, Rajeev; Marler, Tim; Abdel-Malek, Karim (2009-06-09). "Real-Time Obstacle Avoidance for Posture Prediction". SAE Technical Paper Series. 1. Warrendale, PA: SAE International. doi:10.4271/2009-01-2305.
  8. 1 2 Abdel-Malek, Karim; Yu, Wei; Jaber, Mohamad; Duncan, Jerry (2001-06-26). "Realistic Posture Prediction for Maximum Dexterity". SAE Technical Paper Series. 1. Warrendale, PA: SAE International. doi:10.4271/2001-01-2110.
  9. ↑ Marler, Timothy; Farrell, Kimberly; Kim, Joo; Rahmatalla, Salam; Abdel-Malek, Karim (2006-07-04). "Vision Performance Measures for Optimization-Based Posture Prediction". SAE Technical Paper Series. 1. Warrendale, PA: SAE International. doi:10.4271/2006-01-2334.
  10. ↑ Xiang, Yujiang; Rahmatalla, Salam; Arora, Jasbir S.; Abdel-Malek, Karim (2011). "Enhanced optimisation-based inverse kinematics methodology considering joint discomfort". International Journal of Human Factors Modelling and Simulation. 2 (1/2): 111. doi:10.1504/ijhfms.2011.041640. ISSN   1742-5549.
  11. ↑ Kim, Joo H.; Yang, Jingzhou (James); Abdel-Malek, Karim (2009). "Multi-objective optimisation approach for predicting seated posture considering balance". International Journal of Vehicle Design. 51 (3/4): 278. doi:10.1504/ijvd.2009.027957. ISSN   0143-3369.
  12. ↑ Yang, Jingzhou; Rahmatalla, Salam; Marler, Tim; Abdel-Malek, Karim; Harrison, Chad (2007), "Validation of Predicted Posture for the Virtual Human SantosTM", Digital Human Modeling, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 4561, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 500–510, doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-73321-8_58 , ISBN   978-3-540-73318-8
  13. ↑ Marler, Timothy; Yang, Jingzhou; Rahmatalla, Salam; Abdel-Malek, Karim; Harrison, Chad (2007-06-12). "Validation Methodology Development for Predicted Posture". SAE Technical Paper Series. 1. Warrendale, PA: SAE International. doi:10.4271/2007-01-2467.
  14. ↑ Rahmatalla, Salam; Xiang, Yujiang; Smith, Rosalind; Li, Jinzheng; Muesch, John; Bhatt, Rajan; Swan, Colby; Arora, Jasbir S.; Abdel-Malek, Karim (2008-06-17). "A Validation Protocol for Predictive Human Locomotion". SAE Technical Paper Series. 1. Warrendale, PA: SAE International. doi:10.4271/2008-01-1855.
  15. 1 2 Chung, Hyun-Joon; Arora, Jasbir S.; Abdel-Malek, Karim; Xiang, Yujiang (2015-03-01). "Dynamic Optimization of Human Running With Analytical Gradients". Journal of Computational and Nonlinear Dynamics. 10 (2). doi:10.1115/1.4027672. ISSN   1555-1415.
  16. 1 2 Kim, Joo H.; Abdel-Malek, Karim; Yang, Jingzhou; Farrell, Kimberly; Nebel, Kyle (2005-06-14). "Optimization-Based Dynamic Motion Simulation and Energy Expenditure Prediction for a Digital Human". SAE Technical Paper Series. 1. Warrendale, PA: SAE International. doi:10.4271/2005-01-2717.
  17. ↑ Pitarch, Esteban Peña; Yang, Jingzhou; Abdel-Malek, Karim (2005-06-14). "SANTOS™ Hand: A 25 Degree-of-Freedom Model". SAE Technical Paper Series. 1. Warrendale, PA: SAE International. doi:10.4271/2005-01-2727.
  18. ↑ Goussous, F.; Marler, T.; Abdel-Malek, K. (March 2009). "A New Methodology for Human Grasp Prediction". IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics - Part A: Systems and Humans. 39 (2): 369–380. doi:10.1109/tsmca.2008.2010090. ISSN   1083-4427. S2CID   19957716.
  19. ↑ Peña-Pitarch, Esteban; Yang, Jingzhou; Abdel-Malek, Karim (2009), "Virtual Human Hand: Grasping and Simulation", Digital Human Modeling, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 5620, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 140–149, doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-02809-0_16 , ISBN   978-3-642-02808-3
  20. ↑ Kim, Joo H.; Xiang, Yujiang; Bhatt, Rajankumar; Yang, Jingzhou; Chung, Hyun-Joon; Patrick, Amos; Arora, Jasbir S.; Abdel-Malek, Karim (2008-01-01). "Efficient ZMP Formulation and Effective Whole-Body Motion Generation for a Human-Like Mechanism". ASME 2008 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference. Vol. 2: 32nd Mechanisms and Robotics Conference, Parts A and B. ASMEDC. pp. 1073–1084. doi:10.1115/detc2008-49925. ISBN   978-0-7918-4326-0.
  21. ↑ Corrin, Amber (June 5, 2012). "Virtual soldier brings military training into the real world". Defense Systems. Retrieved 2020-02-01.
  22. ↑ Hariri, Mahdiar; Arora, Jasbir; Abdel-Malek, Karim (2012-08-12). "Optimization-Based Prediction of Aiming and Kneeling Military Tasks Performed by a Soldier". ASME 2012 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference. Vol. 3: 38th Design Automation Conference, Parts A and B. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. pp. 661–671. doi:10.1115/detc2012-71166. ISBN   978-0-7918-4502-8.
  23. ↑ Charis-Carlson, Jeff. "UI's virtual soldier program to help prevent injuries". Iowa City Press-Citizen. Retrieved 2020-02-01.
  24. ↑ Navarro, Chantelle (24 February 2018). "UI Engineering department sees progress in virtual soldier, predicting injuries". www.kcrg.com. Retrieved 2020-02-01.
  25. ↑ About VSR | The University of Iowa
  26. ↑ Pena-Pitarch, E., Yang, J., and Abdel-Malek, K. (2005). Santos™ Hand: A 25-Degree-of-Freedom Model, SAE Technical Paper 2005-01-2727, doi : 10.4271/2005-01-2727.
  27. ↑ Marler, R. Timothy; Arora, Jasbir S.; Yang, Jingzhou; Kim, Hyung-Joo; Abdel-Malek, Karim (2009-09-18). "Use of multi-objective optimization for digital human posture prediction". Engineering Optimization. 41 (10): 925–943. doi:10.1080/03052150902853013. ISSN   0305-215X. S2CID   123568422.
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  29. ↑ Yang, Jingzhou; Marler, R. Timothy; Beck, Steven; Abdel-Malek, Karim; Kim, Joo (March 2006). "Real-Time Optimal Reach-Posture Prediction in a New Interactive Virtual Environment". Journal of Computer Science and Technology. 21 (2): 189–198. doi:10.1007/s11390-006-0189-3. ISSN   1000-9000. S2CID   23888618.
  30. ↑ Abdel-Malek, Karim (2013-05-30). Human motion simulation : predictive dynamics. Arora, Jasbir S. Waltham, MA. ISBN   978-0-12-404601-6. OCLC   847948857.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  31. ↑ Xiang, Yujiang; Arora, Jasbir S.; Abdel-Malek, Karim (2010-03-18). "Physics-based modeling and simulation of human walking: a review of optimization-based and other approaches". Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization. 42 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1007/s00158-010-0496-8. ISSN   1615-147X. S2CID   121736850.
  32. ↑ Xiang, Yujiang; Chung, Hyun-Joon; Kim, Joo H.; Bhatt, Rajankumar; Rahmatalla, Salam; Yang, Jingzhou; Marler, Timothy; Arora, Jasbir S.; Abdel-Malek, Karim (2009-08-21). "Predictive dynamics: an optimization-based novel approach for human motion simulation". Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization. 41 (3): 465–479. doi:10.1007/s00158-009-0423-z. ISSN   1615-147X. S2CID   119651454.
  33. ↑ Xiang, Yujiang; Arora, Jasbir S.; Rahmatalla, Salam; Abdel-Malek, Karim (2009-08-06). "Optimization-based dynamic human walking prediction: One step formulation". International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering. 79 (6): 667–695. Bibcode:2009IJNME..79..667X. doi:10.1002/nme.2575. ISSN   0029-5981. S2CID   121908035.
  34. ↑ Xiang, Yujiang; Arora, Jasbir S.; Chung, Hyun-Joon; Kwon, Hyun-Jung; Rahmatalla, Salam; Bhatt, Rajankumar; Abdel-Malek, Karim (2011-09-27). "Predictive simulation of human walking transitions using an optimization formulation". Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization. 45 (5): 759–772. doi:10.1007/s00158-011-0712-1. ISSN   1615-147X. S2CID   121279682.
  35. ↑ Kim, Joo H.; Yang, Jingzhou; Abdel-Malek, Karim (2008-01-10). "A novel formulation for determining joint constraint loads during optimal dynamic motion of redundant manipulators in DH representation". Multibody System Dynamics. 19 (4): 427–451. doi:10.1007/s11044-007-9100-4. ISSN   1384-5640. S2CID   53591532.
  36. ↑ Abdel-Malek, Karim; Arora, Jasbir (2008-11-20), "Physics-Based Digital Human Modeling", Human Factors and Ergonomics, CRC Press, pp. 5–1–5–33, doi:10.1201/9781420063523.ch5, ISBN   978-0-8058-5646-0
  37. ↑ Xiang, Yujiang; Arora, Jasbir S.; Abdel-Malek, Karim (June 2012). "3D Human Lifting Motion Prediction with Different Performance Measures". International Journal of Humanoid Robotics. 09 (2): 1250012. doi:10.1142/s0219843612500120. ISSN   0219-8436.
  38. ↑ Kim, Joo H.; Abdel-Malek, Karim; Yang, Jingzhou; Marler, Timothy; Nebel, Kyle (2005-01-01). "Lifting Posture Analysis in Material Handling Using Virtual Humans". ASME 2005 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. Manufacturing Engineering and Materials Handling, Parts A and B. ASMEDC. pp. 1445–1453. doi:10.1115/imece2005-81801. ISBN   0-7918-4223-1.
  39. ↑ Hariri, Mahdiar; Xiang, Yujiang; Chung, Hyun-Joon; Bhatt, Rajan; Arora, Jasbir; Abdel-Malek, Karim (2013-10-21). "Simulation and Prediction of the Motion of a Human in a Vertical Jumping Task". ASME 2013 Dynamic Systems and Control Conference. Vol. 1: Aerial Vehicles, Aerospace Control, Alternative Energy, Automotive Control Systems, Battery Systems, Beams and Flexible Structures, Biologically-Inspired Control and its Applications, Bio-Medical and Bio-Mechanical Systems, Biomedical Robots and Rehab, Bipeds and Locomotion, Control Design Methods for Adv. Powertrain Systems and Components, Control of Adv. Combustion Engines, Building Energy Systems, Mechanical Systems, Control, Monitoring, and Energy Harvesting of Vibratory Systems. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. doi:10.1115/dscc2013-4091. ISBN   978-0-7918-5612-3.
  40. ↑ Bataineh, Mohammad; Marler, Timothy; Abdel-Malek, Karim; Arora, Jasbir (April 2016). "Neural network for dynamic human motion prediction". Expert Systems with Applications. 48: 26–34. doi: 10.1016/j.eswa.2015.11.020 . ISSN   0957-4174.
  41. ↑ Bataineh, Mohammad; Marler, Timothy; Abdel-Malek, Karim (2013), "Artificial Neural Network-Based Prediction of Human Posture", Digital Human Modeling and Applications in Health, Safety, Ergonomics, and Risk Management. Human Body Modeling and Ergonomics, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 8026, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 305–313, doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-39182-8_36 , ISBN   978-3-642-39181-1
  42. ↑ Denavit, J., & Hartenberg, R. S. (1955). A kinematic notation for lower-pair mechanisms based on matrices. Journal of Applied Mechanics, 77, 215–221.
  43. ↑ Yang, Jingzhou; Kim, Joo H.; Abdel-Malek, Karim; Marler, Timothy; Beck, Steven; Kopp, Gregory R. (July 2007). "A new digital human environment and assessment of vehicle interior design". Computer-Aided Design. 39 (7): 548–558. doi:10.1016/j.cad.2006.11.007. ISSN   0010-4485.
  44. ↑ "GruntSim, the Marines' new infantry simulator". popularmilitary.com. Retrieved 2020-02-01.
  45. ↑ GruntSim is a US Marines simulation for lightening the load, warfighter load, Predictive Dynamic , retrieved 2020-02-01
  46. ↑ Abdel-Malek, Karim; Yu, Wei; Yang, Jingzhou; Nebel, Kyle (November 2004). "A mathematical method for ergonomic-based design: placement". International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics. 34 (5): 375–394. doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2004.05.001. ISSN   0169-8141.
  47. ↑ Department Of The Army Washington Dc (1987-05-08). Administration: Civilian Aides to the Secretary of the Army (PDF). Fort Belvoir, VA: Department of the Army Washingtong. doi:10.21236/ada401816.
  48. ↑ Kim, Joo H.; Abdel-Malek, Karim; Mi, Zan; Nebel, Kyle (2004-06-15). "Layout Design using an Optimization-Based Human Energy Consumption Formulation". SAE Technical Paper Series. 1. Warrendale, PA: SAE International. doi:10.4271/2004-01-2175.
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  55. ↑ Chung, Hyun-Joon; Xiang, Yujiang; Mathai, Anith; Rahmatalla, Salam; Kim, Joo; Marler, Timothy; Beck, Steve; Yang, Jingzhou; Arora, Jasbir; Abdel-Malek, Karim; Obusek, John (2007-06-12). "A Robust Formulation for Prediction of Human Running". SAE Technical Paper Series. 1. Warrendale, PA: SAE International. doi:10.4271/2007-01-2490.
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