Whiteness theory

Last updated

Whiteness theory is a field within whiteness studies concerned with what white identity means in terms of social, political, racial, economic, culture, etc. [1] Whiteness theory posits that if some Western societies make whiteness central to their respective national and cultural identities, their white populations may become blind to the privilege associated with White identity. The theory examines how that blindness may exclude, otherize and perhaps harm non-white individuals and segments of the population. [2]

Contents

Whiteness theory is an offshoot of critical race theory that sees race as a social construct. It posits that whiteness is "practiced" by employing "visible systems of whiteness" that white people use to maintain power to benefit only white people. [3] [4] [5] Critical whiteness theory (CWT) positions whiteness as the default of North American and European cultures. It further describes that as a result of this default, a majority of white people are not directly aware of the advantages of being white conferred upon them by various on-going social practices. Academics and others who study CWT explain that the dominant white cultural and social processes that uphold whiteness stem from historical practices described as the "performativity of whiteness." [6] [7] [8] [9] When this performativity aims to perpetuate racial privilege, assumed racial superiority, and secure the acceptance of dominance, it is referred to as white supremacy. [10] Stemming from the lack of cultural awareness, humanity, and empathy with racial others as a result of being white, whiteness theory looks at the social, power, and economic challenges that arise from disregard or denial of white privilege, and the use of strategies of whiteness to reassert white space, [11] also known as white degeneracy. [12] [13]

History of whiteness

North America

Whiteness as a social identity formed in the colonial and post-colonial era. In the colonial era social class was more important than race among white people, however during the post-colonial era, social changes gave non-whites an opportunity to engage freely in the economy and those changes economically threatened lower and middle class white people. Racism and racialization were required tools for distinguishing oneself from non-whites, and preventing non-whites from utilizing their freedom for sustainable growth. [14] The opportunism for gaining an economical advantage motivated the lower and middle class white people to reproduce what whiteness can be in order to have a privileged lifestyle, and it was augmented and legitimized by the surviving plantation bourgeoisie class through social and psychological courtesies for further protecting their own privileges. [15] White race solidarity in upholding whiteness through centuries is one of the strongest and ever growing class collaborationism seen in North America. [14]

Primary features of whiteness theory

Whiteness as default

Whiteness is a socially constructed concept, identified as the normal and centric racial identity. As whiteness is the standard to which racial minorities are compared, whiteness is understood as the default standard. [16] Whiteness theory establishes whiteness as default, through which social, political, and economic complications arise from whiteness and its creation of color blindness. [13] The ideologies, social norms, and behaviors associated with white culture are the comparative standard to which all races are objectified to. [17]

The defaulting of whiteness establishes a reality in which White people, as victims of their race as centric, do not experience the adversity of those with minority identification. An otherization of minorities can occur with whiteness as a default, where whiteness theory identifies whiteness as invisible to those who possess it, resulting in both intended and unintended otherization. [18] Whiteness as default presents socioeconomic privileges and advantages over racial minorities, which also might go unrecognized by White people that are not objectified by some other standard of adversity. [16]

Whiteness as centric

As the majority of Americans are White, whiteness is considered the default race of the United States, the existing cultural norms of whiteness are classified as the norms of American culture. Such classifications include stereotypical expectancies of behavior, in which a binary system is created that classifies a person's culture as either "White" or "other." [19] Majority racial status plays a major role for those of white identity creating cultural "norms," as one's behaviors and expectations of how a culture should live and interact is more easily reinforced by association with the majority. [20] Lack of awareness parallels the centric nature of whiteness as majority through self-imposed color blindness, existing through the reality of White privilege.

Whiteness theory studies the way that White identity passively creates the otherization of color. Color is a construct that can be objectified, made from the existence of whiteness as majority and centric. [21] Such a perception whiteness as "normal" leads to an underrepresentation and misrepresentation of minority individuals.

White identity

The idea of whiteness as "normal" reinforces the idea of racial marginalization, through which an identity of may be created through the antithesis of subjugated "otherized" cultures. [22] Much of White identity is formulated around the absence of an identity. Because there is no association towards being objectified by social, racial, economic, or judicial systems for the middle-class White identifiers, White identity for an individual may be intentionally crafted to suit the wants and needs of the individual. [23] Such a choice of "coloring in" one's whiteness is a reflection of the privileges of whiteness and a lack of diverse community association. [24]

The spheres of privilege and discrimination possibilities based on identity, notably citing whiteness as one of the platforms of dominance. Intersecting Axes of Discrimination.png
The spheres of privilege and discrimination possibilities based on identity, notably citing whiteness as one of the platforms of dominance.

White privilege

In the United States, White privilege is theorized to exist due to the hierarchy of power distribution, where White men were granted institutional power over minorities in the establishment of the country's political, social, and economic systems. [1] White privilege resides in the idea that White people inherit a color blindness due to their majority status, refuting the existence of racism and racial privilege because of a lack of association with those realities. [25] The privileges of being in the majority are unknown by the majority, paradoxically, because they are the majority and are not subjected to the social trials of being a minority. [26] White people have received a more sympathetic media treatment than black people, for example having been portrayed as mentally ill, after they had committed a serious crime such as a mass shooting. [27]

Lack of discrimination is an underlying principle of White privilege, as the privileges available to the White majority are not as readily enjoyed by those of minority status. Such privileges include, but are not limited to: owning/renting of property, equal racial representation in law and society, unbiased education, assumption of intellectual, social, or financial capability, unbiased credibility. [28] Privilege is multi-faceted in its existence; each of these realities and countless others are the subject of White privilege, as discrimination is faced by minority subjects while trying to enjoy such realities.

White bias

White bias is in reference to majority stronghold that White people possess. White people have selective preference of granting power and privileges to those of the same ethnicity, referred to as in-group bias. [29] Such strongholds may be categorically associated to the social, educational, economic, political, racial, and cultural privileges associated by the majority White. [ clarification needed ] Institutionally power is granted hierarchically, and in majority, to those who that associate most with the power holders. Racial bias exists as a barrier to entry for many minority power seekers, where a gatekeeping effect is created by those in the majority who are reluctant to pass power onto the minority, whether through qualification-based or discrimination-based motives. [30]

Socially, institutional slavery, then racism has played a major role in the discrimination of not only African-Americans, but as well other minority affiliations as suboptimal. Economically, access to higher-paying jobs and wage gap discrimination are an ongoing discourse demanding institutional change, both as a result of White bias. [31] Politically, racial bias is seen with the highly sought after Presidential office, where America's first black president, Barack Obama, was not elected until 2008, being preceded by 43 White presidents and proceeded by 2 White presidents.

Critiquing whiteness

Communication research revolving around critical race theory seeks to understand the privileges and associations of whiteness. The critical aspect of research involves the realization of white enrichment, where white people have profited from the injustices done unto minorities (see European colonization of the Americas and slavery) both knowingly and unknowingly. Systems in the United States more often than not create privileged realities where white people may succeed more than those of minority identity, also allowing those of white identity to more easily change and manipulate the system to their favor. [32]

A component of critical whiteness theory seeks to understand how white people acknowledge their privileges, as well as the corresponding positive or negative behaviors through their acknowledgements. Unique qualitative research is derived from how normative whiteness is in our culture, associated with how color blindness and privilege blindness affect interracial contexts of communication, as well as the white perception of injustices done unto minorities in America. [33]

Whiteness and property

Cheryl I. Harris's concept: "Whiteness as Property"

In 1993, legal scholar Cheryl I. Harris published a paper entitled "Whiteness as Property" in the journal the Harvard Law Review. In the paper, Harris argues that the law has historically maintained racial inequality and the privileges of being white, allowing white identity to facilitate a property interest.

Harris writes that the concepts of individuals' and groups' whiteness and their property rights are deeply interrelated concepts, and that white racial identity comes with the allocation of societal advantages:

The meaning of property has changed over time. In particular, whiteness and property share a common premise - a conceptual nucleus - of a right to exclude. [34]

Harris's concept highlights how the race intersects with systems of power, perpetuating inequality. She argues that that system reinforces racial hierarchy across society, relegating people of color to a disadvantaged status. This approach highlights that race is not merely a biological category or an individual-level phenomenon, but a social category. The paper emphasizes the role of race in maintaining systems of dominance and subordination.

Further, "whiteness as property" is characterized as exclusive, only being possessed and used by individuals who possess a white identity. [35] The functions of white property include rights of disposition, right to use and enjoyment, "reputation and status property", and "the absolute right to exclude". [36]

White inflation theory

Coined by racial sociologist Daniel J. Gil De Lamadrid, white inflation theory emphasizes the role white inflation, or the gradual increase in ethnicities considered white, plays in maintaining whiteness as property. [37] It argues that when an ethnic group transitions from non-white to quasi-white, the boundary between racial dominants and subordinates blurs, threatening the contrast value of whiteness as property. To preserve the value of racialized property, inflationary pressure pushes quasi-whites into whiteness.

White inflation works to maintain the property interest in whiteness by ensuring that the boundary between racial dominants and racial subordinates does not blur. Historically, quasi-whites chose whiteness as property over solidarity with people of color similar to how white working-class Americans chose the wages of whiteness. [38]

Whiteness theory in communication studies

The tenets of white privilege are incorporated into whiteness theory to understand the respective communicative possibilities of each tenet. Studying how white privilege is perceived by white people, how well white people perceive white privilege, how white people think their white privilege affects their identity, how white identity is derived from and conflicts with other racial identities, and how white privilege is perceived by minorities are all a limited set of possibilities created by whiteness theory. [39] These theoretical studies can be manipulated by the following variables of whiteness theory:

Whiteness theory in audio-visual studies

Spike Lee's 1989 film Do the Right Thing [40] explores whiteness theory through the social, economic, racial and cultural identities of the white characters Sal, Vito and Pino. The film follows another day in the life of Mookie, an African-American man working for Sal's Famous Pizzeria, and the racial tensions that arise between Sal and Mookie's friend Buggin' Out. Sal, Vito and Pino are an Italian-American family who own a pizzeria in a predominantly black neighbourhood in Brooklyn, New York, USA. The pizzeria is thus marked as a 'white spot' amongst black America, representing what colonised America has become; [41] White Americans are working class citizens who capitalise on Black America. This is exemplified through Pino's behaviour toward the African-American customers of the pizzeria through micro-aggressions and slurring of racist remarks while deindividuating Mookie's negative behaviour to be typical of his race, [42] "How come niggers are so stupid?". [43] As Hughey [44] suggests a feeling of threat to the white normality, Pino attempts to exert his white privilege through his actions. For example, Pino explains that he is fed up with being around black people in this neighbourhood and suggests to his father that they sell Sal's Famous Pizzeria and move to their own neighbourhood instead. Whiteness is also shown through Sal's 'Wall of Fame' in his pizzeria which only showcases famous Italian-American individuals. When Buggin' Out calls for the representation of African-Americans to be included on the wall alongside the Italian-Americans, Sal refuses by replying, "Only Italian-American's up on the wall". [45] Sal sees his own cultural and racial identity to be central to his view of American representation and thus is an example of his whiteness. Another example of Whiteness in the film is when a white man's car is soaked by the suburb's citizens enjoying the water from the fire hydrant on the street. The police ask the man to describe the men who soaked his car and he says, "Mo and Jo Black…Yeah, they were brothers". [46] This is an example of what Memmi [42] describes as the 'mark of plural', where these two individuals are homogenously deindividualized and thus marked as raced rather than as individuals.

Whiteness theory is further explored in the 2006 film Blood Diamond by Edward Zwick. [47] The film follows Danny Archer, a diamond smuggler whose ticket out of Africa is a pink diamond found and hidden by a local African fisherman, Solomon Vandy. Danny Archer's whiteness prevails throughout the film. In one scene, Danny pleads to allow Solomon to help him find his family, saying that without the help of himself and the other white people that he knows, Solomon is, "…just another black man in Africa". [48] On several occasions Danny uses the term T.I.A. (This is Africa) when speaking to white foreigners. [49] It is clear here that the use of this term by a white man in a black country details supposed inherent raced characteristics of Africa that are different to that of the white race. [49] Hughey's [44] notion of the White Saviour is perfectly depicted in this film also. Not only does Danny Archer dedicate his time and resources to help Solomon Vandy find the diamond and thus his family, he asks for the help of other white characters such as Maddy Bowen which ultimately result in Danny Archer's sacrifice of his own life and the money from the pink diamond to save Solomon Vandy and his family from definitive death.

Related Research Articles

Racism is discrimination and prejudice against people based on their race or ethnicity. Racism can be present in social actions, practices, or political systems that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. The ideology underlying racist practices often assumes that humans can be subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as inferior or superior. Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life. Associated social actions may include nativism, xenophobia, otherness, segregation, hierarchical ranking, supremacism, and related social phenomena. Racism refers to violation of racial equality based on equal opportunities or based on equality of outcomes for different races or ethnicities, also called substantive equality.

Racial discrimination is any discrimination against any individual on the basis of their race, ancestry, ethnic or national origin, and/or skin color and hair texture. Individuals can discriminate by refusing to do business with, socialize with, or share resources with people of a certain group. Governments can discriminate explicitly in law, for example through policies of racial segregation, disparate enforcement of laws, or disproportionate allocation of resources. Some jurisdictions have anti-discrimination laws which prohibit the government or individuals from being discriminated based on race in various circumstances. Some institutions and laws use affirmative action to attempt to overcome or compensate for the effects of racial discrimination. In some cases, this is simply enhanced recruitment of members of underrepresented groups; in other cases, there are firm racial quotas. Opponents of strong remedies like quotas characterize them as reverse discrimination, where members of a dominant or majority group are discriminated against.

Racial color blindness refers to the belief that a person's race or ethnicity should not influence their legal or social treatment in society.

The term "minority group" has different usages, depending on the context. According to its common usage, the term minority group can simply be understood in terms of demographic sizes within a population: i.e. a group in society with the least number of individuals, or less than half, is a "minority". Usually a minority group is disempowered relative to the majority, and that characteristic lends itself to different applications of the term minority.

Whiteness studies is the study of the structures that produce white privilege, the examination of what whiteness is when analyzed as a race, a culture, and a source of systemic racism, and the exploration of other social phenomena generated by the societal compositions, perceptions and group behaviors of white people. It is an interdisciplinary arena of inquiry that has developed beginning in the United States from white trash studies and critical race studies, particularly since the late 20th century. It is focused on what proponents describe as the cultural, historical and sociological aspects of people identified as white, and the social construction of "whiteness" as an ideology tied to social status.

White privilege, or white skin privilege, is the societal privilege that benefits white people over non-white people in some societies, particularly if they are otherwise under the same social, political, or economic circumstances. With roots in European colonialism and imperialism, and the Atlantic slave trade, white privilege has developed in circumstances that have broadly sought to protect white racial privileges, various national citizenships, and other rights or special benefits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intersectionality</span> Theory of discrimination

Intersectionality is a sociological analytical framework for understanding how groups' and individuals' social and political identities result in unique combinations of discrimination and privilege. Examples of these factors include gender, caste, sex, race, ethnicity, class, sexuality, religion, disability, height, physical appearance, age, and weight. These intersecting and overlapping social identities may be both empowering and oppressing.

Critical race theory (CRT) is an academic field focused on the relationships between social conceptions of race and ethnicity, social and political laws, and mass media. CRT also considers racism to be systemic in various laws and rules, not based only on individuals' prejudices. The word critical in the name is an academic reference to critical theory rather than criticizing or blaming individuals.

Reverse racism, sometimes referred to as reverse discrimination, is the concept that affirmative action and similar color-conscious programs for redressing racial inequality are forms of anti-white racism. The concept is often associated with conservative social movements, and reflects a belief that social and economic gains by Black people and other people of color cause disadvantages for white people.

Internalized racism is a form of internalized oppression, defined by sociologist Karen D. Pyke as the "internalization of racial oppression by the racially subordinated." In her study The Psychology of Racism, Robin Nicole Johnson emphasizes that internalized racism involves both "conscious and unconscious acceptance of a racial hierarchy in which a presumed superior race are consistently ranked above other races. These definitions encompass a wide range of instances, including, but not limited to, belief in negative stereotypes, adaptations to cultural standards, and thinking that supports the status quo.

Microaggression is a term used for commonplace verbal, behavioral or environmental slights, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative attitudes toward those of different races, cultures, beliefs, or genders. The term was coined by Harvard University psychiatrist Chester M. Pierce in 1970 to describe insults and dismissals which he regularly witnessed non-black Americans inflicting on African Americans. By the early 21st century, use of the term was applied to the casual disparagement of any socially marginalized group, including LGBT people, poor people, and disabled people. Psychologist Derald Wing Sue defines microaggressions as "brief, everyday exchanges that send denigrating messages to certain individuals because of their group membership". The persons making the comments may be otherwise well-intentioned and unaware of the potential impact of their words.

Laissez-faire racism is closely related to color blindness and covert racism, and is theorised to encompass an ideology that blames minorities for their poorer economic situations, viewing it as the result of cultural inferiority. The term is used largely by scholars of whiteness studies, who argue that laissez-faire racism has tangible consequences even though few would openly claim to be, or even believe they are, laissez-faire racists.

Social privilege is an advantage or entitlement that benefits individuals belonging to certain groups, often to the detriment of others. Privileged groups can be advantaged based on social class, wealth, education, caste, age, height, skin color, physical fitness, nationality, geographic location, cultural differences, ethnic or racial category, gender, gender identity, neurodiversity, physical disability, sexual orientation, religion, and other differentiating factors. Individuals can be privileged in one area, such as education, and not privileged in another area, such as health. The amount of privilege any individual has may change over time, such as when a person becomes disabled, or when a child becomes a young adult.

In the United States, racial inequality refers to the social inequality and advantages and disparities that affect different races. These can also be seen as a result of historic oppression, inequality of inheritance, or racism and prejudice, especially against minority groups.

Racial biases are a form of implicit bias, which refers to the attitudes or stereotypes that affect an individual's understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner. These biases, which encompass unfavorable assessments, are often activated involuntarily and without the awareness or intentional control of the individual. Residing deep in the subconscious, these biases are different from known biases that individuals may choose to conceal for the purposes of social and/or political correctness. Police officers have implicit bias, regardless of their ethnicity. Racial bias in criminal news reporting in the United States is a manifestation of this bias.

White Racial Identity Development is a field of research looking at how white identity can develop and affect a person throughout their life. Through the process, White people become more aware of their role in American society, with the power and privilege they hold through systematic racism. Dr. Janet Helms created the White Racial Identity Model in 1992 to provide a way to categorize white racial identity. Another theory, the White Racial Consciousness Theory was created as an alternative to Helm's model.

The illusion of inclusion has been defined as the "sometimes subtle ways that the standards can appear to adequately address race while at the same time marginalizing it."

Diversity ideology refers to individual beliefs regarding the nature of intergroup relations and how to improve them in culturally diverse societies. A large amount of scientific literature in social psychology studies diversity ideologies as prejudice reduction strategies, most commonly in the context of racial groups and interracial interactions. In research studies on the effects of diversity ideology, social psychologists have either examined endorsement of a diversity ideology as individual difference or used situational priming designs to activate the mindset of a particular diversity ideology. It is consistently shown that diversity ideologies influence how individuals perceive, judge and treat cultural outgroup members. Different diversity ideologies are associated with distinct effects on intergroup relations, such as stereotyping and prejudice, intergroup equality, and intergroup interactions from the perspectives of both majority and minority group members. Beyond intergroup consequences, diversity ideology also has implications on individual outcomes, such as whether people are open to cultural fusion and foreign ideas, which in turn predict creativity.

White defensiveness is the defensive response by white people to discussions of societal discrimination, structural racism, and white privilege. The term has been applied to characterize the responses of white people to portrayals of the Atlantic slave trade and European colonization, or scholarship on the legacy of those systems in modern society. Academics and historians have identified multiple forms of white defensiveness, including white denial, white diversion, and white fragility, the last of which was popularized by scholar Robin DiAngelo.

In critical race theory, the black–white binary is a paradigm through which racial history is presented as a linear story between White and Black Americans. This binary has largely defined how civil rights legislation is approached in the United States, as African Americans led most of the major racial justice movements that informed civil rights era reformation. The paradigm conceptualizes Black and White people as the two predominant racial groups, viewing all racism accordant to anti-blackness, and the Black–White relation as central to racial analysis. According to critical race scholars, the binary acts to govern racial classifications and describe how race is understood and approached politically and socially throughout American history. The black-white binary is a product of white socialization and reduces race relations to an oppressor/oppressed dichotomy.

References

  1. 1 2 Hartmann, D.; Gerteis, J.; Croll, P. R. (2009). "An empirical assessment of whiteness theory: Hidden from how many?". Social Problems. 56 (3): 403–424. doi:10.1525/sp.2009.56.3.403. JSTOR   10.1525/sp.2009.56.3.403.
  2. ↑ Cullen, K. A. (2014). "A critical race and critical whiteness theory analysis of preservice teachers' racialized practices in a literacy across the curriculum course". Syracuse University). Archived from the original on 2019-02-09. Retrieved 2019-02-09.
  3. ↑ Gabriel, John (1998). Whitewash: Racialized Politics and the Media. Psychology Press. ISBN   978-0-415-14969-3.
  4. ↑ Levine-Rasky, Cynthia (2016-02-11). Whiteness Fractured. Routledge. ISBN   978-1-134-76463-1. Whiteness refers to amultitude...order of things.
  5. ↑ Stephen W. Littlejohn; Karen A. Foss (2009). Encyclopedia of Communication Theory. Vol. 1. Sage Publications, Inc. p. 1007. ISBN   978-1-4129-5937-7. Archived from the original on 2020-09-27. Retrieved 2019-02-09.
  6. ↑ Harris, Cheryl I. (1993). "Whiteness as Property". harvardlawreview.org.
  7. ↑ Schick, Carol (2014-01-01). "White resentment in settler society". Race Ethnicity and Education. 17 (1): 88–102. doi:10.1080/13613324.2012.733688. ISSN   1361-3324. S2CID   145271216.
  8. ↑ Warren, John T. (2009-06-06). "The social drama of a 'rice burner': A (re)constitution of whiteness". Western Journal of Communication. 65 (2): 184–205. doi:10.1080/10570310109374699. ISSN   1057-0314.
  9. ↑ Nkomo, Stella M. (1992). "The Emperor Has No Clothes: Rewriting "Race in Organizations"". The Academy of Management Review. 17 (3): 487–513. doi:10.2307/258720. ISSN   0363-7425. JSTOR   258720.
  10. ↑ Henry, Frances; Tator, Carol (2006). The Colour of Democracy: Racism in Canadian Society. Thomson Nelson. pp. 46+. ISBN   978-0-17-622486-8.
  11. ↑ Moore, Julia Robinson; Sullivan, Shannon (2018-01-01). "Rituals of White Privilege: Keith Lamont Scott and the Erasure of Black Suffering". American Journal of Theology & Philosophy. 39 (1): 34–52. doi:10.5406/amerjtheophil.39.1.0034. ISSN   0194-3448. S2CID   171801098. white rituals...augments it.
  12. ↑ Walsh, Shannon L. (2020-11-16). Eugenics and Physical Culture Performance in the Progressive Era: Watch Whiteness Workout. Springer Nature. ISBN   978-3-030-58764-2.
  13. 1 2 Nichols, D. (2010). "Teaching critical Whiteness theory: What college and university teachers need to know". Understanding and Dismantling Privilege. 1 (1): 1–12. Archived from the original on 2016-10-28. Retrieved 2019-02-09.
  14. 1 2 Cooper, Lydia R. (2021-12-26). The Routledge Companion to Masculinity in American Literature and Culture. Routledge. ISBN   978-1-000-50495-8.
  15. ↑ Francois, Willie Dwayne III (2022-08-16). Silencing White Noise: Six Practices to Overcome Our Inaction on Race. Baker Books. ISBN   978-1-4934-3706-1.
  16. 1 2 Green, M. J., Sonn, C. C., & Matsebula, J. (2007). Reviewing whiteness: Theory, research, and possibilities. South African Journal of Psychology, 37(3), 389-419.
  17. ↑ Rogers, R., & Mosley, M. (2006). Racial literacy in a second‐grade classroom: Critical race theory, Whiteness studies, and literacy research. Reading Research Quarterly, 41(4), 462-495.
  18. ↑ Ahmed, S. (2012). On being included: Racism and diversity in institutional life. Duke University Press.
  19. ↑ Berger, M. A. (2005). Sight unseen: Whiteness and American visual culture. Univ of California Press.
  20. ↑ Gillborn*, D. (2005). Education policy as an act of White supremacy: Whiteness, critical race theory and education reform. Journal of Education Policy, 20(4), 485-505.
  21. ↑ Giroux, Alexandra. "Communication Interne". Archived from the original on 2019-01-19. Retrieved 2019-01-17.
  22. ↑ Frankenberg, R. (1994). Whiteness and Americanness: Examining constructions of race, culture, and nation in white women's life narratives. race, 62-77.
  23. ↑ Lyubansky, Mikhail Lyubansky. "Psychology Today". Archived from the original on 2020-09-27. Retrieved 2019-01-17.
  24. ↑ Reay, D., Hollingworth, S., Williams, K., Crozier, G., Jamieson, F., James, D., & Beedell, P. (2007). A darker shade of pale?'Whiteness, the middle classes and multi-ethnic inner city schooling. Sociology, 41(6), 1041-1060.
  25. ↑ Morris, A., & Kahlor, L. A. (2014). Whiteness Theory in Advertising: Racial Beliefs and Attitudes Toward Ads. Howard Journal of Communications, (4), 415.
  26. ↑ Jacobs, Tom (23 July 2018). "White Mass Shooters Are Treated More Sympathetically by the Media". Pacific Standard. Archived from the original on 2019-05-07. Retrieved 2019-05-07.
  27. ↑ Grabmeier, Jeff (July 17, 2018). "White mass shooters receive sympathetic media treatment". Ohio State News . Retrieved May 11, 2021.
  28. ↑ McIntosh, P. (2007). White privilege and male privilege. Race, Ethnicity and Gender: Selected Readings, 377-385.
  29. ↑ "Project Implicit – Harvard.edu". Archived from the original on 2019-03-25. Retrieved 2019-01-17.
  30. ↑ Galvan, A. (2015). Soliciting performance, hiding bias: Whiteness and librarianship. the Library with the Lead Pipe.
  31. ↑ Weis, L. (2006). Masculinity, Whiteness, and the new economy: An exploration of privilege and loss. Men and Masculinities, 8(3), 262-272.
  32. ↑ Blum, L. (2008). "White privilege: A mild critique". In". Theory and Research in Education. 6 (309): 311.
  33. ↑ Tranby, E., & Hartmann, D. (2008). Critical whiteness theories and the evangelical "race problem": Extending Emerson and Smith's Divided by faith. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 47(3), 341-359.
  34. ↑ Harris, Cheryl I. (1993). "Whiteness as Property". Harvard Law Review. 106 (8): 1707–1791.
  35. ↑ Yosso, Tara J. (2004). "From Jim Crow to Affirmative Action and Back Again: A Critical Race Discussion of Racialized Rationales and Access to Higher Education. Review of Research in Education". Review of Research in Education: 1–25.
  36. ↑ Harris, Cheryl I. (2011). "Critical Characteristics of Whiteness as Property". Harvard Law Review : II, (4), (c) & (d).
  37. ↑ Gil De Lamadrid, Daniel J. (2024). "Toward a White Inflation Theory". Academia: 1–7.
  38. ↑ Roediger, David R. (1991). The wages of whiteness: Race and the making of the American working class. Verso.
  39. ↑ Hartmann, D., Gerteis, J., & Croll, P. R. (2009). An empirical assessment of whiteness theory: Hidden from how many?. Social Problems, 56(3), 403-424.
  40. ↑ Do the Right Thing. Directed by Spike Lee. New York: 40 Acres and a Mule Filmworks, 1989.
  41. ↑ Mitchell, W. J. T. "The Violence of Public Art: Do the Right Thing." Critical Inquiry, vol. 16, no. 4, 1990: 880-899 (20p)
  42. 1 2 Memmi, Albert. The Colonizer and the Colonized. Boston: Beacon Press, 1965 [1957] (excerpt part II "Mythical Portrait of the Colonized": 79-89) (11p)
  43. ↑ Do the Right Thing. Directed by Spike Lee. New York: 40 Acres and a Mule Filmworks, 1989. (0:45:45)
  44. 1 2 Hughey, Matthew W. The White Savior Film: Content, Critics, and Consumption. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2014 (excerpts, 17p)
  45. ↑ Do the Right Thing. Directed by Spike Lee. New York: 40 Acres and a Mule Filmworks, 1989. (0:20:04)
  46. ↑ Do the Right Thing. Directed by Spike Lee. New York: 40 Acres and a Mule Filmworks, 1989. (0:29:16)
  47. ↑ Blood Diamond. Directed by Edward Zwick. Bedford Falls Productions, 2006.
  48. ↑ Blood Diamond. Directed by Edward Zwick. Bedford Falls Productions, 2006. (0:43:02)
  49. 1 2 Swank, Allison. "This is Africa: Whiteness and Representations of the other recent Hollywood Films." PhD diss., University of Cape Town, 2010.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.