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Meat is animal tissue, often muscle, that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and farmed other animals for meat since prehistory. The Neolithic Revolution allowed the domestication of animals, including chickens, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and cattle, starting around 11,000 years ago. Since then, selective breeding has enabled farmers to produce meat with the qualities desired by producers and consumers.
Poultry are domesticated birds kept by humans for the purpose of harvesting animal products such as meat, eggs or feathers. The practice of raising poultry is known as poultry farming. These birds are most typically members of the superorder Galloanserae (fowl), especially the order Galliformes. The term also includes waterfowls of the family Anatidae but does not include wild birds hunted for food known as game or quarry.
The chicken is a large and round short-winged bird, domesticated from the red junglefowl of Southeast Asia around 8,000 years ago. Most chickens are raised for food, providing meat and eggs; others are kept as pets or for cockfighting.
Campylobacter is a type of bacteria that can cause a diarrheal disease in people. Its name means "curved bacteria", as the germ typically appears in a comma or "s" shape. According to its scientific classification, it is a genus of gram-negative bacteria that is motile.
Breed broiler is any chicken that is bred and raised specifically for meat production. Most commercial broilers reach slaughter weight between four and six weeks of age, although slower growing breeds reach slaughter weight at approximately 14 weeks of age. Typical broilers have white feathers and yellowish skin. Broiler or sometimes broiler-fryer is also used sometimes to refer specifically to younger chickens under 2.0 kilograms, as compared with the larger roasters.
In culinary terms, white meat is meat which is pale in color before and after cooking. In traditional gastronomy, white meat also includes rabbit, the flesh of milk-fed young mammals, and sometimes pork. In ecotrophology and nutritional studies, white meat includes poultry and fish, but excludes all mammal flesh, which is considered red meat.
Hock burns are lesions found on the hock joints of chickens and other birds raised on broiler farms. They are considered a form of contact dermatitis. These marks occur when the ammonia from the waste of other birds burns through the skin of the leg, leaving a brown ulcer mark. The condition has been found to be a source of pain for birds, can cause mobility issues, and may increase the risk of bacterial diseases. In severe cases, hock burns can cause visible scabs to form.
Chicken is the most common type of poultry in the world. Owing to the relative ease and low cost of raising chickens—in comparison to mammals such as cattle or hogs—chicken meat and chicken eggs have become prevalent in numerous cuisines.
Meat science is the study of meat, including its production, preparation and preservation. Some meat scientists are studying methods of producing artificial meat such as cultures of muscle cells.
Poultry farming is the form of animal husbandry which raises domesticated birds such as chickens, ducks, turkeys and geese to produce meat or eggs for food. Poultry – mostly chickens – are farmed in great numbers. More than 60 billion chickens are killed for consumption annually. Chickens raised for eggs are known as layers, while chickens raised for meat are called broilers.
Pale, soft, exudative meat, or PSE meat, describes a carcass quality condition known to occur in pork, beef, and poultry. It is characterized by an abnormal color, consistency, and water holding capacity, making the meat dry and unattractive to consumers. The condition is believed to be caused by abnormal muscle metabolism following slaughter, due to an altered rate of glycolysis and a low pH within the muscle fibers. A mutation point in the ryanodine receptor gene (RYR1) in pork, associated to stress levels prior to slaughter are known to increase the incidence of PSE meat. Although the term "soft" may look positive, it refers to raw meat. When cooked, there is higher cook loss and the final product is hard, not juicy.
Data mining in agriculture is a research topic consisting of the application of data mining and data science techniques to agriculture. Recent technologies are able to provide extensive data on agricultural-related activities, which can then be analyzed in order to find information.
The Ayam Cemani is a rare breed of chicken from Indonesia. They have a dominant gene that causes hyperpigmentation (fibromelanosis), making the chicken mostly black, including feathers, beak, and internal organs. The Cemani is a very popular gamecock for cockfighting in Bali because their thighs have much more muscle compared to other chickens, which leads to them being much faster.
Lactobacillus gallinarum is a species in the genus Lactobacillus. Its type strain is ATCC 33199.
Antibiotic use in livestock is the use of antibiotics for any purpose in the husbandry of livestock, which includes treatment when ill (therapeutic), treatment of a group of animals when at least one is diagnosed with clinical infection (metaphylaxis), and preventative treatment (prophylaxis). Antibiotics are an important tool to treat animal as well as human disease, safeguard animal health and welfare, and support food safety. However, used irresponsibly, this may lead to antibiotic resistance which may impact human, animal and environmental health.
The Humane League (THL) is an international nonprofit organization that works to end the abuse of animals raised for food through corporate, media and community outreach. It operates in the United States, Mexico, the UK and Japan. THL promotes plant-based diets, conducts research on the effectiveness of different interventions, and works to obtain animal welfare commitments from companies. It was founded in 2005 in Philadelphia by Nick Cooney.
Feed manufacturing refers to the process of producing animal feed from raw agricultural products. Fodder produced by manufacturing is formulated to meet specific animal nutrition requirements for different species of animals at different life stages. According to the American Feed Industry Association (AFIA), there are four basic steps:
- Receive raw ingredients: Feed mills receive raw ingredients from suppliers. Upon arrival, the ingredients are weighed, tested and analyzed for various nutrients and to ensure their quality and safety.
- Create a formula: Nutritionists work side by side with scientists to formulate nutritionally sound and balanced diets for livestock, poultry, aquaculture and pets. This is a complex process, as every species has different nutritional requirements.
- Mix ingredients: Once the formula is determined, the mill mixes the ingredients to create a finished product.
- Package and label: Manufacturers determine the best way to ship the product. If it is prepared for retail, it will be "bagged and tagged," or placed into a bag with a label that includes the product's purpose, ingredients and instructions. If the product is prepared for commercial use, it will be shipped in bulk.
Estradiol palmitate, or estradiol monopalmitate, also known as estradiol 17β-hexadecanoate, is a naturally occurring steroidal estrogen and an estrogen ester – specifically, the C17β palmitate ester of estradiol. It occurs in the body as a very long-lasting metabolite and prohormone of estradiol. The compound has no affinity for the estrogen receptor, requiring transformation into estradiol for its estrogenic activity. In addition to its endogenous role, estradiol palmitate was formerly used as a fattening agent in chickens under the brand name Esmopal.
The poultry microbiome is an understudied, yet extremely impactful part of the poultry industry. Poultry is defined as any avian species used for production purposes such as food or down feathers. The United States consumes more poultry, specifically broiler meat, than any other type of protein. Worldwide, poultry makes up 33% of consumed meat. This makes poultry extremely valuable and the impact of the poultry microbiome on health and production even more valuable. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first to notice microbes inside animals through stool samples giving light to further research into the gut microbiome. His discovery lead to the ever evolving study of the microbiota and microbiome. The microbiota is the entirety of living organisms including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and archaea in an environment. The microbiome is the combination of the microbiota and the additional activities in that system including metabolites and chemicals in a habitat. Much of the work done to characterize the poultry microbiome has been accomplished over the past decade and was done through the use of 16s rRNA sequencing.
White striping is a condition in poultry where white fat deposits replace muscle in stripes along muscle fibers. It is considered a type of myopathy, primarily of the Pectoralis major muscle. There does not appear to be direct harm to birds specifically from white striping. However, some scientists and animal welfare groups have called its presence indicative of the industry's use of fast-growing birds, who have higher rates of health issues and welfare concerns such as hock burns. Using fast-growing birds is linked to overall higher rates of white striping.
References
- ↑ Chatterjee, D.; Zhuang, Hong; Bowker, Brian C.; Rincon, A. M.; Sanchez-Brambila, G.; U.S. National Poultry Research Center; University of Georgia Department of Poultry Science (1 October 2016). "Instrumental texture characteristics of broiler pectoralis major with the wooden breast condition". Poultry Science. 95 (10): 2449–2454. doi: 10.3382/ps/pew204 . PMID 27418659.
- "The woody breast condition affects texture characteristics of both raw and cooked chicken breast meat". Atlas Of Science. 2017-04-11.
- ↑ Austin, Alonzo (Jan 2022), "The best uses for woody breast meat", WATT PoultryUSA, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 36–41
- ↑ Barbara de Almeida Mallmann; Guillermo Tellez-Isaias; Andy Mauromoustakos; Craig N. Coon; Casey M. Owens (2020). "Fillet Dimensions and Meat Quality Attributes Associated With Woody Breast in Broilers". Meat and Muscle Biology. 34: 1–9. doi: 10.22175/mmb.11224 .
- ↑ Picchi, Aimee (30 March 2016). ""Woody breast" could bite the chicken business". MoneyWatch . CBS News . Retrieved 26 May 2021.
- ↑ Barbut, S (2020), Understanding the woody breast syndrome and other myopathies in modern broiler chickens, Australian Poultry Science Symposium. Sydney, Australia, pp. 99–102
- ↑ Caldas-Cueva, Juan P; Casey M Owens (Aug 1, 2020). "A review on the woody breast condition, detection methods, and product utilization in the contemporary poultry industry". J Anim Sci. 98. doi:10.1093/jas/skaa207. PMC 7419734 . PMID 32783056.
- ↑ Schaer, Lilian (February 9, 2022). "Simplifying woody breast detection". Canadian Poultry Magazine. Annex Business Media. Retrieved 30 November 2023.
